Subsurface Drainage In The Midwest - Iowa State University
Subsurface Drainage inthe MidwestMark HitzFall 2008
Background!!From Carthage, IL
Background
Background!!Education!!Attended Western Illinois University- Bachelor of Science in Agriculture in Fall 2000!!!!Started Masters of Science in Agronomy Distance EducationProgram in Fall of 2002Work Experience!!!!!!!!!!Intern for Farm Optimization (Monsanto) 1999Intern for Monsanto 2000Sales Representative for Pioneer Hi-Bred 2001-2004Resource Conservationist for Hancock County SWCD 2004-2005USDA NRCS 2005-Current
Background!!District Conservationist inCass County, IL
Why Subsurface Drainage?
Subsurface Drainage in theMidwest!!!!!!!!!Mark Hitz, Natural Resources Conservation ServiceRichard Cruse, Iowa State University Department of Agronomy
!!!Course IndexIntroductionPurposeHistoryField ConditionsMaterialsEquipmentDesign ConsiderationsAgriculture & Environmental EffectsManagement AlternativesSummaryExam
!!IntroductionThroughout the nation water quantity and water quality is a concern forcommercial crop production. While some regions may have less thanadequate rainfall to effectively produce crops other areas may be inundatedwith excess rainfall also making it difficult to produce crops. Subsurfacedrainage, or tile drainage as it is more commonly referred to in the agriculturalcommunity, is a tool that producers of the Midwest can use to remove excesswater from their fields. Subsurface drainage lowers the natural water table ofthe soil making the soil environment more conducive for plant growth and fieldoperations.
!!IntroductionObjectives: ! To define the purpose and uses ofsubsurface drains in the Midwest. ! To review the history of subsurfacedrainage in the Midwest. ! To describe field conditions wheresubsurface drainage may be needed. ! To identify some of the materials thatare used in subsurface drainage systems. ! To identify some of the equipment that isused to install subsurface drains. ! To explain design considerations of asubsurface drainage system. ! To identify some managementalternatives of a subsurface drainagesystem.
!Purpose!!Within agriculture, subsurface drainage is primarily know for improving soil conditions forplant growth; however, there are several other uses for the practice. Illinois NaturalResources Conservation Service (NRCS) Conservation Practice Subsurface Drain defines subsurface drainage as, a conduit such as corrugated plastic tubing, tile, orpipe, installed beneath the ground surface to collect and/or convey drainagewater (NRCS, 2004). The Subsurface Drain Conservation Practice Standard states asubsurface drain s purpose is to, improve the soil environment for vegetative growth,reduce erosion, and improve water quality by: regulating water table and ground waterflow, intercepting and preventing water movement into a wet area, relieving artesianpressures, removing surface runoff, leaching of saline and sodic soils, serving as anoutlet for other subsurface drains, and regulating subirrigated areas or waste disposalareas (NRCS, 2004). The Subsurface Drain Conservation Practice Standard providesother purposes for subsurface drainage such as: collecting ground water for beneficialuse, removing water from heavy use areas, such as around buildings, roads, and playareas; and accomplishing other physical improvements related to water removal, andregulating water to control health hazards caused by pests such as flukes, flies, ormosquitoes (NRCS, 2004).!!
!History!!The practice of draining the land hasbeen around for a long time. Some ofthe oldest uses of subsurface drainageinclude the use of bamboo pipes inancient China and drainage systemsthat date back to Mesopotamia some9000 years ago (Ritzema et al., 2006).Subsurface drainage was first used inthe United States near Geneva, NewYork in 1835 when a farmer namedJohn Johnston used hand made claytiles to drain his land (Urban, 2005).!!
!History!!In an effort to relieve public pressureconcerning the release of federalswamp and wetlands for privatedevelopment, congress passed theSwamp Land Acts of 1849 and 1850(Zucker and Brown, 1998). Thesekey pieces of legislation transferredlarge amounts of land from the federalgovernment to individual states(Urban, 2005). Once in the hands ofindividual states these areas could beturned over to county organizationsand/or drainage districts (Zucker andBrown, 1998). More than 53 millionacres out of 956 million acres of farmland in the United States had received some sortof drainage by 1920 (Zucker and Brown, 1998). A survey conducted in 1982 by theUnited States Department of Agriculture (USDA) NRCS indicated 233 million acres ofrural land not federally owned in the United States has wet soils with 45% beingcropland and 30% forested land (Zucker and Brown, 1998).!!
!!Field Conditions!Annual rainfall, topography, the soil, andcrop growth requirements are allconsiderations when evaluating the needfor a subsurface drainage system. Thenatural drainage, or permeability, of thesoil, is the most common indicator of needfor a subsurface drainage system. Soilpermeability is a measurement of howwater moves downward through the soilprofile and is expressed in inches per unitof time or typically inches per hour(Dravlos and Melvin, 1991). Soilpermeability rates will vary based on soiltexture and structure. Soils withmoderately slow permeability range from0.2 to 0.6 inches per hour, soils withmoderate permeability range from 0.6 to 2inches per hour, and soils with moderatelyrapid permeability range from 2 to 6 inchesper hour (Soil Survey, 2007).!!Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS
!!Field Conditions!The USDA NRCS classifies soils asbeing: excessively drained,somewhat excessively drained,well drained, moderately welldrained, somewhat poorly drained,poorly drained, and very poorlydrained (Soil Survey, 2007).Published local county soil surveys orinternet sources such ashttp://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.govcan provide much of the neededinformation for evaluating the soil.!!Field containing somewhat poorly drained andpoorly drained soils.
!MaterialsMaterials used in subsurface drainagesystems will depend on the availabilityof materials, contractors, cost, and/orlandowner preference. In the UnitedStates early subsurface drainagesystems utilized clay and concrete,simply because they were the mostsuitable materials at the time.Corrugated plastic tubing has sincereplaced clay and concrete as thepreferred material for drainage systems.Even though it is no longer the mostpreferred material today, many fields inthe Midwest still have functioning drainagesystems that were constructed using clay Clay tile dug from a crop field.tile. In fact, many landowners andoperators are unaware of where thesesystems are located in crop fields, as drainage records were rarely kept and manytimes lost during change of land ownership. However, despite their age some of theseolder clay drainage systems function normally without the landowner even knowing oftheir existence.!!!!
!!Materials!!!Half of a clay tile that is shaped like a brick.Two halves would have been laid facingeach other to form the circular center.Clay tile stacked along a field edge.
!!Materials!The most commonly used material inthe United States is polyethylene (PE)or otherwise known as plastic tubing.Polyethylene is not affected bychemicals and acids in the soil(Dravlos and Moe, 1984). It is,however, sensitive to sunlight andtemperature. When exposed tosunlight and heat plastic tubing willlose some of its rigidness. Whenexposed to cold temperatures plastictubing will become hard and brittle.Compared to clay and concretecorrugated plastic tubing is easier totransport because it weighssignificantly less. It is also easier toinstall than clay and concrete becauseit is a long continuous piece of flexiblematerial.!!Corrugated polyethylene tile waiting to beinstalled.
!Materials!!The American Society for Testing andMaterials (ASTM) F-405-05 contains theStandard Specifications for CorrugatedPolyethylene (PE) Pipe and Fittings.This standard specification covers therequirements and test methods used inmanufacturing the product; such as, pipestiffness, brittleness, and perforations(ASTM F-405-05). It covers corrugatedpolyethylene pipe and fittings innominal sizes of 3 in. (76 mm) to 6 in.(152 mm) (ASTM F-405-05). ASTMF-667-06 is the Standard andCorrugated polyethylene tile being unrolledSpecifications for Large Diameterfor installation.Corrugated Polyethylene Pipe andFittings. This standard specificationcovers nominal sizes 8 in. (203 mm), 10 in. (254 mm), 12 in. (305 mm), 15 in. (381mm), 18 in. (457 mm), and 24 in. (610 mm) (ASTM F-667-06). Using drainage tile andfittings that meet these standards helps guarantee the quality of the material.!!
!!Equipment!The first use of trenching and excavatingequipment to install subsurface drainagesystems came in 1890 (Ritzema et al.,2006). The first tile machines were calledtrencher tile machines due to their methodof excavation and installation. A trenchertile machine digs a trench to a desireddepth and grade while simultaneouslylaying the drainage tile. These machinescome in various sizes and capacities.Some machines utilize a chain with teeth to dig the trench while othersutilize a wheel with a series of scoops or buckets to dig the trench.!!Trencher type tile machine. This machineuses a chain with teeth to excavate thetrench.
!!Equipment!!!Trencher type tiling machine. This machineuses a wheel with a series of scoops or buckets to dig the trench. It is oftenreferred to as a wheel digger .Close up of the digging mechanism of atrencher tiling machine that utilizes a wheelwith a series of scoops or buckets todig the trench.
!!Equipment!!!Close up of corrugated plastic tubing beinginstalled by a trencher type tile machine.Corrugated plastic tubing being installedby a trencher type tile machine.
!!Equipment!During the installation of drainage tile with a trencher type tile machine, a small portionof the excavated material is placed on top of and around the drainage tile to hold it inplace until the trench can be backfilled. The remaining excavated material can bebackfilled into the trench using a variety of machinery. This can be done with a tractorand blade, a bulldozer, backhoe, or a machine that is specifically for backfillingtrenches.Small bulldozer backfilling atile trench.Machine designed for backfilling.It uses a auger to move theexcavated material.!!
!Equipment!!Machines referred to as trenchlesstile machines were introduced in thelate 1960 s (Ritzema et al., 2006).Trenchless tile machines do notexcavate a tile trench like trenchertile machines. Instead, trenchlesstile machines act as a plow or aripper temporarily lifting the soilto allow the drainage tile to beinstalled at the rear of the plow.Unlike a trencher type tile machinethese machines do not redistributethe soil profile. Some trenchless tilemachines are not machines at allField with drainage tile installed using abut rather attachments that can betrenchless tile machine.pulled by tractors or constructionequipment. Trenchless tile machinescan lay drainage tile at a higher speed than trencher tile machines and do not requireany backfilling since there is no excavation. However, they can be more restrictive thantrencher tile machines when it comes to depth and size of drainage tile due to capacitylimitations.!!
!!Equipment!!!Pull type trenchless tile machine. Thispiece of equipment is commonly referredto as a tile plow . It attaches to the3pt hitch of this tractor.Close up of the plow blade/pointon a pull type tile plow.
!!Equipment!!!Trenchless type tile machine.Close up of the plow and boot.
!Design Considerations!!Because all fields are not createdequal, different tile patterns may beneeded to provide adequate drainageto the desired area. Topography,available outlets, and field boundarieswill dictate what drainage pattern willbe the most effective. There are avariety of drainage patterns that canbe used when planning a subsurfacedrainage system; however, there arefour patterns that are considered to becommon. These include: ! random drainage pattern ! parallel drainage pattern ! herringbone drainagepattern ! double main drainagepattern(Dravlos and Melvin, 1991).!!
!!Design Considerations!A random drainage pattern uses anunsystematic series of laterals andmains throughout the field to providethe needed drainage. This drainagepattern is commonly used on groundthat has an irregular landscape or ishilly. It can be used to drain isolatedwet areas in a field or to drain hillsideseeps. A random drainage pattern isalso commonly used when erosioncontrol practices are placedthroughout the field.!!Source: Dravlos and Melvin, 1991
!!Design Considerations!A herringbone drainage pattern hasmultiple laterals draining into onemain. The laterals enter the main atan angle from one side or both sides.This drainage pattern can be used forlarge low lying or depression areas.Areas with long gradual slopes aretypical for this drainage pattern. Fieldboundaries or other obstructions maynot allow laterals to enter the main onboth sides and drain the entiredepression area. In such an instancea modification of this pattern may beused to drain only the area desired.!!Source: Dravlos and Melvin, 1991
!!Design Considerations!A parallel drainage pattern consists ofa systematic series of laterals that runparallel to each other and enter amain, usually at 90 degrees. Thisdrainage pattern is commonly used todrain areas that are considered to beflat. It is easier to implement watertable management strategies with aparallel drainage pattern than some ofthe other drainage patterns.!!Source: Dravlos and Melvin, 1991
!!Design Considerations!A double main drainage pattern issimilar to a parallel drainage patternexcept there is more than one mainused to drain the area. Like theparallel drainage pattern the doublemain consists of a systematic seriesof parallel laterals that enter a main.With a double main drainage patternthe depression or low lying area isdissected by a water channel or grasswaterway. This type of interruption inthe landscape makes it infeasible toeffectively drain the desired area anduse one main for the outlet. A main isplaced on each side of the channel orgrass waterway and provides anoutlet for the laterals entering it.!!Source: Dravlos and Melvin, 1991
!!Design Considerations!Drainage tile should be sized to lowerthe water table in a manner that isconducive to crop production. Thefirst step in sizing a drainage tile isselecting a drainage coefficient. Adrainage coefficient is the desiredamount of drainage that will occur ininches over a 24 hour period (Dravlosand Moe, 1984). A typical drainagecoefficient for most field crops with amineral soil is 3/8 of an inch to 1/2 ofan inch while an organic soil is 1/2 to3/4 of an inch (Dravlos and Moe,1984). Most drainage systems aredesigned with a drainage coefficient of3/8 of an inch; however, somelandowners choose to bear theincreased cost of installing larger tileso that they may use a largerdrainage coefficient.!!Inconsistency in corn height due to poordrainage during early plant development.
!Design Considerations!!This chart may be used todetermine the cubic feet persecond of water for a predetermined drainage coefficientand the desired amount ofacres to be drained. To usethis chart find the desiredamount of acres to be drainedwithin the desired drainagecoefficient column. Next matchthe selected acres from yourpre-determined drainagecoefficient column with thecolumn on the left to determinethe cubic feet per second (cfs)of water.Source: NRCS, 2001!!
!Design Considerations!!After figuring the cubic feet persecond of water this chart willdetermine what size tubing is requiredper a given grade. It will also providethe velocity of the water within the tile.To use this chart find the cubic feetper second of water on the left andfollow it across until it meets with thevertical line from the selected gradebased on the percent slope of thedrainage area. Where the two lineintersect will provide an adequate tilesize.Source: NRCS, 2001!!
!!Design Considerations!The depth of the drainage tile should be deep enough to prevent frost heaving andavoid contact with deep tillage operations. The topography of the installation area andavailable outlets will also dictate the grade of the drainage tile. The grade should begreat enough to prevent silt from collecting within the tile and carry the required amountof cubic feet per second of water. The grade should also be flat enough that it does notexceed the maximum velocity; otherwise, erosion could occur around the drainage tile.Maximum allowable velocity for tile per soil textureSoil TextureSand and sandy loamSilt and silt loamSilty clay loamClay and clay loamCoarse sand or gravelVelocity, ft/sec3.55.06.07.09.0This table provides the maximum allowable velocity withinthe tile in feet per second for a given soil texture.Adapted from Dravlos and Moe, 1984.!!
!Design Considerations!!The spacing of drainage tile should beclose enough to provide adequatedrainage for crop growth and fieldoperations. Typical drainage tilespacing ranges from as close as 20feet to as far as 80 feet and isinstalled at a depth of 30 to 40 inches(Zucker and Brown, 1998). A properlydesigned and installed drainagesystem should lower the water tableto at least 12 inches below thesurface in 24 hours and approximately21 inches in 48 hours after a rainevent (Dravlos and Moe, 1984). Stateuniversity publications can be goodsources of information for drainagespacing; however, local contractorsand landowners can be the bestsources of information because oftheir knowledge of the region.!!
!!Design Considerations!Good drainage outlets are necessaryin maintaining the functionality of asubsurface drainage system. Itshould be installed on design gradeand sized large enough to handle allof the flow coming from all the lateralsin the drainage area. Outlets shouldbe constructed of a rigid section of UVresistant pipe that will protect thesystem against any erosion and/orundermining that may occur at theoutlet site.!!Four subsurface drainage outlets partiallysubmerged in a road ditch. Notice the animalguard located just inside the white PVC pipe.This is used to keep animals from crawling upthe pipe and becoming lodged during dryperiods and potentially plugging the system.
!!Design Considerations!Subsurface drainage systems mayalso be incorporated with erosioncontrol practices such as terraces orwater and sediment control basins.These practices temporarily impoundwater at the surface and slowlyrelease it through subsurface drainsand surface inlets. In some instancesthe subsurface drains are notadequately sized to handle theadditional discharge rate of waterfrom these structures.!!Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS.
!!Design Considerations!To maintain the integrity of thedrainage system, it may be necessaryto install a relief well to relieve theadditional pressure put on the systemand prevent it from blowing out. Ablow out can occur when thedischarge of water is so great that thepressure pushes the water out of theperforations of the drainage tile andup through the soil profile to thesurface. This can lead to the soilcovering the drainage tile beingremoved and exposing the drainagetile, creating what is commonlyreferred to as a tile hole.!!Relief well. The seven outlets on the right aredraining cropland and water and sedimentcontrol basins. The single drain on the left isthe main outlet for all of the drains draining intothis relief well.
!Agriculture and Environmental Effects!!Recent advances in technology havegiven producers the opportunity toclosely monitor their croppingpractices. Yield monitors and globalpositioning systems have paved theway for a monitoring system that tiesyield to a specified area in the field.With these tools, producers haveseen improved crop growth in areasthat are adequately drained and yielddeclines in areas that are notadequately drained, or where tiles arenot functioning properly (Kladiviko etal., 2005).!!Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS
!Agriculture and Environmental Effects!!A subsurface drainage system createsa favorable soil environment for cropgrowth and allows for timelier fieldoperations. Subsurface drainageincreases oxygen to plant roots andincreases the soil temperature, whichallows for earlier planting, earlier plantemergence, and a longer growingseason (Oquist et al., 2007). Longterm studies in Indiana report averageannual increases in corn yields of 14to 23 bu/acre while long-term studiesin Ohio report average annualincreases in corn yields of 20 to 30bu/acre for corn grown withsubsurface drainage systems versusno drainage systems (Zucker andBrown, 1998).!!Excessive rainfall coupled with poor drainageand rushed planting conditions can have longterm effects on crop development as seen herein the this uneven corn stand.
!Agriculture and Environmental Effects!!Research conducted in Minnesotaand Ohio report that subsurfacedrainage can reduce compaction andimprove soil tilth (Zucker and Brown,1998). In addition to creating afavorable soil environment for plantgrowth, subsurface drainage can alsoprovide some benefits to theenvironment when incorporated withconservation practices by reducingrunoff. Subsurface drainage canreduce the sediment and dissolvedphosphorus concentrations that entersurface waters when the system isincorporated with conservation tillage(Zucker and Brown, 1998). Soil thatis not saturated is less likely todetach, be transported in runoff water,and deposited in surface waters.!!Sediment laden runoff from a crop field.Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS
!Agriculture and Environmental Effects!!While subsurface drainage providesseveral benefits to crop productionsome researchers have shown itmight have a negative effect onsurface waters (Algoazany et al.,2007). Production agriculture hasbeen identified as point and non-pointsources that negatively affect waterquality (Borin et al., 2001).Watersheds within the MississippiRiver Basin have been indentified ascontributors of nutrients that createhypoxia conditions within the Gulf ofMexico (Tomer et al., 2003).!!Tile drainage water from cropland.
!!Management Alternatives!Subsurface drainage systems can beinstalled or manipulated in a mannerthat allows producers to control howmuch water is leaving and/or enteringtheir field. These methods ofmanaging drainage water ormanipulating the water table can betermed water table management .Water table management consists ofthree different groups; which are,conventional drainage systems,controlled drainage systems, andsubirrigation drainage systems(Zucker and Brown, 1998). Thesemanagement systems are discussedfurther in the next few pages.!!Water control structure placed at the end of adrainage system.
!Management Alternatives!!Conventional Drainage SystemA conventional drainage system is typical for many crop production fields in theMidwest. This drainage system consists of a series of laterals and mains that emptyinto an open channel or body of water unrestricted. The water table is lowered to thedepth of the drainage tile by gravity.Conventional Drainage System.Source: Ohio State University Extension Bulletin 871-98,Water Table Management!!
!Management Alternatives!!Controlled Drainage SystemA controlled drainage system is similar to a conventional drainage system. This systemconsists of a systematic series of laterals and mains that are intercepted at a certainelevation by a water control structure. A water control structure controls the amount ofdrainage water leaving the field by manipulating the water table. This is done by addingor removing stop logs within the structure. Placement of these structures within adrainage system will depend on the slope of the land and desired size of themanagement area. Some existing conventional drainage systems may be modified to acontrolled drainage system by the addition of one or more water control structures.Controlled drainage system.Source: Ohio State University Extension Bulletin 871-98,Water Table Management!!
!Management Alternatives!!Subirrigation SystemA subirrigation system acts as a controlled drainage system but is also capable ofserving as a subsurface irrigation system. Just like a controlled drainage system thewater table is manipulated by the addition or removal of stop logs within a water controlstructure. However, during periods of dry weather water may be pumped into thesystem to raise the water table to a level that would not be obtainable throughcontrolled drainage methods.Subirrigation drainage system.Source: Ohio State University Extension Bulletin 871-98,Water Table Management!!
!!Management Alternatives!Use of water table managementpractices such as controlled drainagesystems and subirrigation systemshas the potential to offset some of thenegative effects associated withsubsurface drainage, particularlynitrate nitrogen finding its way intosurface waters. In Ohio and Michiganresearch found that use of water tablemanagement improves drainagewater quality (Zucker and Brown,1998). Several sites in Michiganshowed nitrate nitrogen deliveredthrough subsurface drainage systemsto surface waters was reduced by64% and 58% by using subirrigation(Zucker and Brown, 1998).!!Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS
!!Summary!Subsurface drainage systems in theMidwest have given producers theability to improve the drainage of theirland. Improved drainage creates amore conducive environment for cropgrowth and field operations, whichultimately leads to increased yields.By utilizing a subsurface drainagesystem to its fullest and incorporatingwater table management practicesproducers of the Midwest have anopportunity to potentially increaseyields and reduce the amount ofnutrients that are finding their way intothe nation s surface water.!!Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS.
Questions?
A trencher tile machine digs a trench to a desired depth and grade while simultaneously laying the drainage tile. These machines come in various sizes and capacities. Some machines utilize a chain with teeth to dig the trench while others utilize a wheel with a series of scoops or buckets to dig the trench. Equipment ! !! ! ! Trencher type tile .
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