Rosemary Production - Department Of Agriculture, Forestry .
ESSENTIAL OIL CROPSProduction guidelines for rosemaryRosemary productionagriculture,forestry & fisheriesDepartment:Agriculture, forestry & fisheriesREPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA
Rosemary productionJune 2009DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREDirectorate: Plant Production
2009Compiled by Directorate Plant Production in collaboration withmembers of SAEOPA and KARWIL ConsultancyObtainable fromResource CentreDirectorate Agricultural Information ServicesPrivate Bag X144, Pretoria, 0001 South AfricaThe web: www.nda.agric.za/publicationsPublished byDirectorate Agricultural Information ServicesDepartment of AgriculturePrivate Bag X144, Pretoria, 0001 South AfricaFurther information or contactsDirectorate Plant Production, Division Industrial CropsTel:012 319 6079Fax:012 319 6372E-mail: DPP@nda.agric.za
CONTENTSPartI: General aspects .11. Classification .12. Origin and distribution.23. Production levels.24. Major production areas in South Africa.25. Description of the plant .36. Cultivars .47. Climatic requirements .58. Soil requirements.5Part II: Cultivation practices.61. Propagation.62. Soil preparation.73. Planting.84. Fertilisation .95. Irrigation.96. Weed control.97. Pest control. 108. Disease control . 119. Harvesting. 12iii
Part III: Post-harvest handling . 131. Sorting and distillation. 132. Grading . 143. Packaging . 144. Storage . . 145. Marketing . 15Part IV: Production schedules . . 15Part V: Utilisation. 171. Cosmetic. 172. Pharmaceutical and therapeutic . . 173. Food and flavouring . 184. Industrial . . 185. Other. 186. Safety data . 18References. 19iv
Rosmarinus officinalis(Photo: W.S. Mokgobu)Part I: General aspects1. CLASSIFICATIONScientific name: Rosmarinus officinalisCommon names: RosemaryFamily:LabiataeMost sources interpret the Latin name as rosmarinus “dew of the sea”.1
2. ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTIONNative to the Mediterranean, rosemary grows freely in large areas of southernEurope and is cultivated worldwide.3. PRODUCTION LEVELSSouth AfricaThe expected essential oil yield is 20 to 80 kg oil/ha. Yield of essential oilis between 0,2 and 1,3 % of the fresh mass. Yield of dried leaf should be2 000 kg/ha.InternationallyLeading regions of rosemary production are the Mediterranean countries, Northern Africa, England, Mexico and the USA.4. MAJOR PRODUCTION AREAS IN SOUTH AFRICARosemary grows well inthe interior of South Africa,right up to the foothills ofthe Maluti Mountains inthe Eastern Free State. Itis also cultivated in Gauteng, Limpopo, North West,Mpumalanga, Eastern andWestern Cape provinces.Rosemary in the Eastern Cape(Photo: R. du Preez)2
5. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANTStemRosemary is an evergreen, shrubby herb that grows to a height of 1 to 2 m, witha unique aromatic odour and a camphoraceous undertone. The erect stems aredivided into numerous long, slender branches that have ash-coloured and scalybark.LeavesThe branches bear opposite, leathery thick leaves which are lustrous, linear,dark green above and downy white below.FlowerThe flowers are small and pale blue to deep blue. Much of the volatile essentialoils reside in their calyces.Essential partParts used: Stems, leaves and flowers. The oil of rosemary, distilled fromthe flowering tops, as directed in theBritish pharmacopoeia, is superior tothe oil that is obtained from only thestem and leaves.Nearly all the commercial oil is distilled from the stem and leaves of theplant before it is in flower, which thensmells more of camphor.Rosemary at maturity(Photo: K.M. Swanepoel)3
Research forvarieties withgood-quality oil(Photos:K.M. Swanepoeland W.G. Alberts)6. CULTIVARSMany varieties are available from commercial nurseries, and these are BenendenBlue, Flora Rosa, Tuscan Blue, Majorca Pink, Arp, Albiflorus, Huntington Carpet,McConnell’s Blue, Irene, Holly Hyde, Hill Hardy and numerous others. For commercial purposes, there are three main types described of which the chemical4
properties are significant by the market in relation to the main constituent andgeographical areas where they dominate:66 Camphor-borneol (Spain)66 1,8 cineole (Tunisia)66 Verbenone (France)The cineole and verbenone types are two of the oils which promise to have animpact on future markets.A selection of a cultivar was made by SAEOPA and tested for good-quality oil.Current research is done at Ermelo Nooitgedacht research farm. Selected var i eties for superior oil quality are the correct choice for a commercial producer.7. CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTSTemperatureRosemary is a hardy, temperate plant that can tolerate frost. It grows well at daytemperatures of 20 to 25 C. The plant is very adaptable and is grown in almostall regions of South Africa.RainfallRosemary is mostly grown under dryland conditions in South Africa. When underirrigation, care should be taken not to overirrigate. Irrigation at planting is essential and supplementary irrigation is advised until the plants are well established.Once established with a strong root system, rosemary can produce well if rainfallis above 500 mm per year. In wetter areas rosemary will not do as well unlessridged to allow excess water to drain away.8. SOIL REQUIREMENTSWell-drained sandy to clay loam soil with a pH range of 5,5 to 8,0 is required. Aclay percentage of 30 % maximum can be tolerated by the plants.5
Rosemary cuttings in a nursery(Photo: K.M. Swanepoel)Part II: Cultivation practices1. PROPAGATIONRosemary is propagated by means of seeds, cuttings, layering or division ofroots.66 Seeds germinate very slowly. As there is always a problem of cross pollination, growing true-to-type plants from seed is not a good practice unless controlled properly.66 Cuttings from actively growing stem tips are a good way to propagate new plants efficiently. Cuttings of 10 to 15 cm length are taken.The bottom two thirds are stripped from leaves. The cutting is insertedin a proper growing med ium, half to two thirds of the length. Rootinghormones will assist in root formation within 2 to 4 weeks. A mist bed with aheated floor will give the best results.6
66 Layering may be accomplished readily in summer by pegging some of thelower branches under a little sandy soil. After roots have formed the plantscan then be severed from the parent plant.2. SOIL PREPARATIONRosemary does not grow well in waterlogged or high clay soils. If the clay percentage of the soil is too high, application of gravel stone with a diameter of1 to 2,5 cm can be made that can be worked into the soil before planting. This willassist in aeration of the roots. Other practices of incorporation of good compostwill also be beneficial.Herbal and essential oil crops grown on natural soils yield products that are ofhigh quality and in demand globally.General soil preparation guidelinesSoil sampling and analysis66 Take soil samples according to correct guidelines.66 Have the soil analysed at a laboratory that will be able to check for mineraldeficiencies and excesses, organic status and carbon ratios.66 A soil analysis will guide the producer in correcting the nutritional status ofthe soil in order to provide the crop with optimum growing conditions such asa balanced mineral status and correct pH.66 Soil fertility levels have to be within acceptable ranges before a soil-buildingprogramme is started.66 Correct the soil pH according to analysis and soil type.66 Fertiliser use has to be planned according to whether the crop will be growninorganically or organically.66 Soil preparation has to be done according to good cultivation practices.66 Apply suitable soil preparation practices according to the farming operation.(rip, plough, disc, harrow, contour, etc.)7
Plant layout for mechanicalharvesting(Photo: W.G. Alberts)66 If mechanical harvesting andweed control is envisaged, prepare row widths adapted to themachinery to be used.3. PLANTINGSlopeRosemary needs full sun. Rowsshould be orientated east west on theland if possible, and on sloped landplanted on the warmer slopes facingnorth and west.Planting density/spacingField spacing has to be done according to farming method applied.Seedbeds with a width of 1,2 m androw space of 40 to 50 cm are foundeffective with mechan ised cutting.8
Plants are established at 25 to 50 cm within the rows so that the soil is coveredquickly. A total of 50 to 60 000 plants per ha is the norm.Planting dateThe cuttings can be prepared in the greenhouse and be transplanted to the fieldin spring to midsummer.4. FERTILISATIONA basal fertiliser application containing nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium andsulphur should be applied annually, according to the soil analysis results. Rosemary responds well to additional applications of nitrogen usually made after eachharvest to promote new shoot growth during the growing season. Do not giveexcess nitrogen because the quality of the essential oil may be affected as thisreduces flowering, fragrance and flavour. An analysis of organic compost will assist to provide correct application rates.5. IRRIGATIONWhen establishing rosemary, irrigation is needed until the cuttings havedeveloped well, i.e. when they have established roots and are growing actively.Do not allow the plants to dry out completely and do not overirrigate. Matureplants can cope with dryland conditions if rainfall is exceeding 500 mm per year.6. WEED CONTROLHand-weeding and hoeing are very important as weeds affect the yield and qualityof oil. Generally, 2 to 3 weedings are necessary during the year. Inter-row cultiva t ion can be done by a tractor-drawn cultivator or hand hoe. Care should be takennot to damage roots as rosemary is very sensitive to this and it could cause partsof the plant to die back. Effective plant density and canopy will eliminate weeds.9
Weed control guidelines66 Do not allow weeds to seed in the land.66 No-till practices result in fewer weeds.66 Shade out weeds by plant canopy, high plant density, closer row width, ifmoisture content of soil and crop specification allow for it.66 Use manual or mechanical control.66 Organic control measures such as flame weeding and UV radiation can beused where applicable, and if the crop is tolerant to the method.66 Some seeds germinate when exposed to sunlight. Night ploughing can beused as an option for fewer weeds.7. PEST CONTROLRosemary is vulnerable to spider mites, mealybugs, whiteflies and thrips. Careful monitoring and crop rotation as well as applying insecticidal soap with lightweight horticultural oil will assist in keeping the foliage free of pests.66 Whiteflies have piercing/sucking mouthparts which they use to suck sap fromthe leaves of plants. They also excrete large quantities of honeydew whichserves as a growth medium for sooty mould.66 Spider mites feed preferentially on the lower stem, and then move on to feedon the upper section of the plant and on leaves. Leaves may later turn yellowand drop. Silk webbing may be present when infestation is heavy.66 Mealybug females feed on plant sap. They attach themselves to the plantand secrete a powdery, white, waxy layer used for protection while they suckthe plant juices.66 Thrips feed on leaves with their piercing and sucking mouthparts and damagethe plants, causing browning and leaf drop. They can also be vectors of otherdiseases.For further information on the identification of insects and diseases and forrecommended control measures, extension officers should be contacted.For prospective producers of herbal and essential oil crops, the followingpest control guidelines are recommended.10
Waterlogging problems on rosemary(Photos: W.S. Mokgobu)Extension officers from the Department of Agriculture and researchers from agricultural institutes should be contacted for further information on the identificationof insects and for recommended controls.Use the publication* A guide for the control of plant pests – 2002, compiled byAnnette Nel, Mareli Krause, Neervana Ramautar & Kathy van Zyl.8. DISEASE CONTROL66 Fungal problems may arise when the plants are overirrigated.66 Powdery mildew and root rot occur in wet soil.Disease control guidelines66 Follow a disease management programme.66 Regular scouting of the crop is needed.66 Early detection and management of disease can prevent major problems.66 Correct identification of diseases is required.Use the publication* A guide for the control of plant diseases – 2003, compiled byAnnette Nel, Mareli Krause, Neervana Ramautar & Kathy van Zyl.* Obtainable from the Resource Centre, Directorate Agricultural Information Services,Private Bag X144, Pretoria, 0001. Tel: 012 319 7141/7085. Fax: 012 319 726011
Frequent mechanical cutting and fine regrowth(Photo: K.M. Swanepoel)9. HARVESTINGMaturity and methodsFields of rosemary are usually harvested once or twice a year, depending on thegeographical area and whether the harvest is for plant material or essential oil.A first cutting can be obtained in the seeding year, however it is usually delayeduntil 18 months after seeding. More often harvesting is done by farmers withmechanical harvesting. The plants are then yielding more material from frequentregrowth.Essential oilTo obtain essential oil of the highest quality, plants should be in bloom and onlythe flowering tops should be harvested for distil lation. With mechanical harvesting it is better to cut frequently because yields are higher from rapid regrowth.12
Dried rosemaryThe crop is cut frequently before flowering commences, asthe dried product contains only leaves.Fresh rosemaryDried rosemaryFor the fresh market, the herb is cutfrequently at a young stage as young, fresh shoots areused in culinary preparat ions. Woody stems will lowerthe price. Fresh rosemary is harvested early in the morning and kept cooled at 5 C before packaging for themarket. With a temperature of 5 C, a minimum shelflife of 2 to 3 weeks can be expected. After temperature,prevention of excess moisture loss is the second mostimportant post-harvest factor affecting the quality andshelf-life of herbs.Fresh rosemaryPart III: Post-harvest handling1. SORTING AND DISTILLATIONThe dried product should be processed to remove the leaves from the stems andthen sieved to remove dirt and to produce a uniform product. Several methodsexist from sun to sophisticated driers. The use of sun-drying methods results inpoor quality. Artificial drying methods allow better control of product quality. Aforced air-flow drier is a suitable system to dry better-quality leaves.Rosemary should be dried at temperatures lower than 40 C to reduce loss offlavour through volatilis ation of essential oil, and to maintain a good green colour.After drying, the leaves should be separated further from the stems, sieved andgraded. Fresh produce should be clean of foreign material and with a fresh andcrispy appearance and a good colour and flavour.13
2. GRADINGRosemary oil when distilled from the flowering tops has a clear, powerful refresh ing minty-herbal smell with a woody, balsamic undertone. The oil is colourlessto slightly yellow with a watery viscosity. Most producers in South Africa cut anddistil the entire plant. This oil will have a higher camphor content and will be inferior in quality to the above. The practice to distil the flowering tops separatelyis more labour intensive.There is an International Standard (ISO 11164:1995), prescribing quality requirements for dried rosemary. The essential oil content of the dried herb is an important factor contributing to the flavour intensity. Whole rosemary leaves shouldcontain a minimum of 1,2 % volatile oil, maximum of 10 % foreign matter, maximum of 2 % woody stems, and a maximum of 7 % ash.3. PACKAGINGEssential oils can be packaged in bulk or smaller quantities. Smaller quantities usually have higher prices owing to extra handling and packaging materialsneeded. Essential oils are volatile and as such need to be handled with care. Deterioration begins if the liquid is much darker or more viscous than normal. Therelative humidly in the packing area, cold stores, and transport vehicles shouldbe maintained at a high level ( 95 %) where practical.Fresh rosemary is packaged in crates for bulk handling or in clear cellophanesachets that can be marketed directly in shops and supermarkets.Dried rosemary is usually sold in either carton boxes or in glass or plastic containers. Moisture, heat, oxygen and light destroy the properties. Dark air-tightglass is preferred for preservation. Storing under 18 C will extend shelf-life.4. STORAGERosemary essential oil should be stored in acool, dry area until it is used. Once opened, refrigeration and tightly closing the cap will prolong its shelf-life. It should be kept in dark, airtight glass bottles and not exposed to heat orheavy metals.14
5. MARKETINGEssential oil marketThe market for essential oils in SA is divided into local buyers and internationalbuyers. The local buyers include marketing agents and companies from chemicaland pharmaceutical, as well as food and flavouring industries. The internationalbuyers are divided into flavour and fragrance houses, cosmetics and personalhealth care, aromatherapy and food manufacturers who buy in large quantities.The major market in the world for essential oils is the United States, followedby Japan and Europe. However, production continues to be concentrated inEurope, with seven of t
REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA. June 2009. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE . Directorate: Plant Production. Rosemary production. 2009 . Department of Agriculture Private Bag X144, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa Further information or contacts. Directorate Plant Production, Division Industrial Crops
Pine scented rosemary. Pine scented rosemary is a soft sea green that grows to about three to four feet high by about four or more feet wide. Arp rosemary. This plant grows where winter temperatures are frequently in the teens or less. Madalene hill rosemary is a cold hardy
SPARKLING CYANIDE (1945) Six people were thinking of Rosemary Barton who had died nearly a year ago. Book I - ROSEMARY "What can I do to drive away remembrances from mine eyes?" Chapter 1 . IRIS MARLE . Iris Marle was thinking about her sister, Rosemary. For nearly a year she had deliberately tried to put the thought of Rosemary away from her.
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Georgia. Rosemary, an unusual shrub in the state is found on the dunes as is the beautiful red flowing mint (Calamintha coccinea). Another woody mint (Calamintha ashei) listed as Threatened in Georgia is also found on the dunes. The dunes, which support the rosemary and woody mints are considered one of
Product Name Rosemary Oil Organic Biological Definition Rosmarinus Officinalis Leaf Oil is the essential oil obtained from the flowering tops and leaves of the Rosemary, Rosmarinus officinalis L., Lamiaceae INCI Name Rosmarinus Officinalis Leaf Oil Synonyms & Trade Names - CAS-No 846
family (Lamiaceae),17 including lemon balm (Melissa offi-cinalis),18,19 sage (Salvia officinalis, Salvia lavandulaefo-lia),20–22 lavender (Lavandula angustifolia),23 and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis).23 Rosemary (R. officinalis L., Family Lamiaceae) is native to
WITNESS STATEMENT OF ROSEMARY ANNE BATTY. I, Rosemary Anne Batty, of Tyabb, in the State of Victoria, say as follows: 1 I make this statement on the basis of my own knowledgesave where otherwise , stated. Where I make statements based on information provided by others, I believe such information to be true. My advocacy work
When recording archaeological finds using illustration, it is vital that you look very closely at the features visible on the objects. It is also important to look at colours, textures and materials. The ‘potato game’ is designed to get children looking at everyday objects that are usually taken for granted and spotting small features that make them unique. The game will also develop .
