Press Play For Learning: A Framework To Guide Serious .

Australian Journal of Teacher EducationAn estimated 77% of Australian children under 18 years of age play computer games,with average daily gameplay exhibiting gendered patterns: females aged 5-14 years playaround 70 minutes daily while those 15-24 years of age play around 80 minutes; and males 514 years play around 110 minutes daily while those 15-24 years play around 140 minutesdaily (Brand & T skills, but that the extent of the maintenance of thesegains over time was unclear. In contrast, one meta-analysis of 39 studies found that seriousgames produced greater learning gains and better retention than conventional instructionmethods, but were less motivating (Wouters et al., 2013).Providing a possible explanation for the inconsistencies in the findings acrosssystematic and meta-analysis reviews, Wouters et al. (2013) found that learning from seriousgames was enhanced through other instructional and contextual features of the learningsituation, such as the use of supplementary teaching methods, multiple training sessions, andgroup work. This is supported by Bober (2010, p. 7) who points out that “it is important todistinguish between learning directly from playing the game and learning from teacher-ledactivities associated with the game”. Likewise, Ulicsak and Williamson (2010) suggest thatthe nature of the game, the circumstances under which it is played, and the type and level ofinvolvement of the teacher will affect the learning outcomes.While further, large-scale studies on the influence of gender and serious gaming arerequired, recent research highlighted gendered gameplay and learning preferences. Forexample, Tan et al. (2013) found that boys wanted more graphics and animations than girls,while Lowrie and Jorgensen’s (2011) study of mathematics-based gaming indicated that girlsprefer explorative play, but that there are no gender differences in preferences for problemsolving or social modes of interaction within gameplay. Girard, Ecalle & Magnan (2013) notethat the gender and age of the learner, their stage of cognitive and emotional development,and their socio-economic status should all be accounted for in evaluating learning outcomesfrom serious games.The equivocal nature of the findings surrounding the efficacy of serious games forlearning are in part due to the emerging nature of the field, but also highlight the ongoingneed for game developers to work with educators and researchers to produce robust studiesfocused on learning, learner attributes, and assessment (Perrotta et al., 2013), and thatconsider the effect of pedagogy on serious games’ effectiveness for learning (Bober, 2010).This has led to recent theoretical work in mapping the relations between learning, ‘gamemechanics’ and pedagogy (Arnab et al., 2013, 2015).Teachers themselves have touched upon the complexity of understanding learningthrough serious games, with some expressing the view that students are sometimes unable tomake the link between playing the game and wider learning objectives (Ulicsak &Williamson, 2010). Despite this concern, studies suggest that most teachers would like to usegames in their classrooms (Ulicsak & Williamson, 2010; Williamson, 2009), with someAustralian state education bureaucracies promoting serious games for learning (for example,Victorian Department of Education and Training, n.d.). Indeed, in a study of game-basedlearning in 38 primary and secondary schools across Victoria, participants reported observingmany positive changes in both student and teacher behaviours as a result of implementingserious games in the classroom (DEECD, 2011). Students were observed to be clearlyengaged in these serious games, and demonstrated the use and development of higher ordercognitive processes, grew in confidence in technology skills, and displayed positiveinteractions with their peers (DEECD, 2011). Teachers were seen to offer more opportunitiesfor students to take responsibility for their own learning and to engage in peer teaching(DEECD, 2011). Principals were impressed by their staffs’ growing levels of confidence,skill, and interest in the application of serious games, and also by the positive influence ofthis on staff who were not directly involved in the study (DEECD, 2011). Unfortunately, noVol 42, 7, July 20175

Australian Journal of Teacher Educationobjective indicators of learning outcomes – such as assessment results – were made availableto provide further support for these observations.In summary, while research on serious games and learning is currently a work-inprogress, the teaching profession’s continued interest in the area warrants a closer explorationof factors to consider when evaluating the appropriateness of a serious game for classroomuse.What Features Should Teachers Look For in a Serious Game?Dalgarno and Lee (2010), writing about 3D virtual learning environments (oneenvironment used in serious games), explore the unique affordances of these environment forlearning. Affordance refers to the properties or characteristics that determine the possibleuses for a digital object or environment (Dalgarno & Lee, 2010). An adaption of thisaffordance framework provides one way of understanding what type of learning activitiesserious games might make possible. For instance, realistic simulations in training gamesprovide a safe and secure environment that allows students to have experiences that in reallife would be too dangerous or beyond their resources (Girard, Ecalle & Magnan, 2013;Mikropoulos & Natsis, 2011). Similarly, some types of serious games, particularly those thatinvolve fully realised virtual worlds, allow for ‘reification’ or the ability to transform orrepresent abstract ideas beyond the realm of human experience through perceptiblerepresentations and interactions; for example, a player might be able to jump through avirtual microscope's eyepiece and into the drop of water and be the same relative size ofmicro-organisms that live there, and so explore this environment in order to completelearning puzzles (example adapted from Winn, 1993). Size dynamics, where players changetheir size or the size of virtual objects to experience micro or macro worlds, is a keyaffordance of virtual learning environments. It is therefore appropriate that when evaluatingthe suitability of some serious games, such as virtual worlds, that teachers consider theunique properties or affordances of the game and its relevance to intended learning outcomes.In choosing serious games, teachers also need to consider a number of issuesincluding: socially and developmentally appropriate content; curriculum-alignment; expenseand/or licensing issues; the capacity to play the game over short time periods; the suitabilityof the game for the school’s digital platform/s; and the likelihood of high levels of studentengagement (Ulicsak & Williamson, 2010). The question of what features of a serious gamemake them attractive and enjoyable has been of interest to researchers for over three decades.Time, challenge, fantasy, and curiosity have been identified as fundamental components incomputer games for children (Malone, 1982). More recently, referring to the literature and tointerviews with expert game developers, researchers, and teachers, Bober (2010) concludedthat the use of serious games in the classroom should be guided by design principles such asthe use of fantasy and narrative to engage students in the learning experience; visual andaural stimulation through multimedia elements; having clear and meaningful goals withchallenging and increasing levels of difficulty; incorporating timely feedback mechanismswith a focus on progression; providing students with opportunities to make decisions thatinfluence the learning experience; and encouraging social interaction between learners byproviding opportunities for collaboration and discussion – as part of the game, in theclassroom and/or online. Finally, as analytics begin to be embedded into serious games,educators will be able to choose games that best allow them to ‘harvest’ data on studentlearning behaviour within the game along with formative and summative assessmentinformation (Smith, Blackmore, & Nesbitt, 2015; Smith, Hickmott, Southgate, Bille, &Stephens, 2016).Vol 42, 7, July 20176

Australian Journal of Teacher EducationA Framework to Guide Teachers in Choosing and Using Serious Games in K-12ClassroomsUlicsak and Williamson (2010) suggest that the specificity of educational contextsmeans that there are no hard and fast rules around how to use serious games to supportlearning. However, research has pointed to the importance of pedagogical support inincreasing the efficacy of these games (Bober, 2010; Wouters et al., 2013). Therefore, whileteachers do need to exercise flexibility and professional judgement in their selection and useof serious games, we argue that there are a key set of questions teachers can ask whenevaluating serious games for classroom use. There are a number of frameworks developed foreducators around serious games. For example, while Becker (2016) provides a wide-rangingset of very different models for understanding serious game use for teachers, she does notprovide one synthesised guide that teachers might use to inform decision-making. Earlierframeworks or sets of questions from de Freitas and Oliver (2006) and Ulicsak andWilliamson (2010) are more focused and accessible, but do not address contemporary aspectsof game use in classrooms such as the Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) trend or onlinegaming. We have however built on the work of these authors to develop a new,comprehensive framework for teachers to use when choosing and using serious games intheir K-12 classrooms (see Fig. 1).Our framework is grounded in established knowledge domains in the field ofeducation (Alexander, 2008; Bernstein, 1975, 1990). These domains are (a) the learner andhow they learn based on their developmental stage, individual needs and motivations,sociocultural background and experience in gaming; (b) pedagogy including planning oflearning activities, teaching strategies, and the evaluation of the effectiveness of the teachingapproach; (c) curriculum or what is being learnt and the various ways of knowing,encountering and investigating this; and, (d) assessment or the formative and summativeevaluation of how and when students meet learning outcomes; and, (e) technical contextwhich includes platforms, connectivity infrastructure, and expertise in the school to supportserious game use and content creation (where applicable).The inter-relatedness of these domains is well documented in educational research(Alexander, 2008). Teachers should consider the domains, and the guiding questions withinthem, as part of an iterative process when making decisions about the use of serious games inthe classroom. For example, the utility of a particular game may be determined in part bywhether the teacher’s preference is for group work or individual tasks for learning, and theattributes and affordance of the game in fulfilling this pedagogical imperative. Furthermore,these factors will be influenced by a teacher’s understanding of the developmental differencesfor individual learners in their class and, for example, how other related gameplay oractivities that are external to the game might scaffold students towards deeper learning.A teacher’s expert knowledge of the learners in their class is critical to the successfulimplementation of a serious game. Students’ self-evaluation of game play experience andskill may or may not be accurate or relevant to a particular game, and so teachers will need todevelop ways to gauge students’ gameplay skills and identify ways to support those studentsin bringing their gameplay up to a standard that allows them to maximise their learning froma serious game. Conversely, teachers also need to understand gameplay so that they canassess whether students will be sufficiently challenged by the game or if other learningactivities outside of the game are required to extend learning. Teachers should also considerwhether the whole game or only a section is relevant to the learning objectives, and how thismight affect the time and guidance required to reach the point where students can playindependently.Vol 42, 7, July 20177

Australian Journal of Teacher EducationPedagogical and curriculum-related decisions include the timing and sequencing ofthe game in the lesson or unit of work. This involves determining whether specified levels ofthe game are practised to a certain standard, or if ongoing progress throughout the game isexpected in subsequent lessons, as well as considering if the game can and should bepracticed outside class time. Moreover, teachers should carefully consider how formative andsummative assessment of learning outcomes and transfer of knowledge beyond the game willoccur. Teachers should devise a brief evaluation mechanism to gauge the student experienceof learning and engagement in the game, which will also be of use when reflecting on andevaluating the pedagogical approach. All of these decisions will be affected by the technicalcontext, the curriculum priorities, and the assessment structure of the learning situation.Figure 1. A Framework to Guide Teachers in Using Serious Games in K-12 Classrooms.Vol 42, 7, July 20178

Australian Journal of Teacher EducationCareful preparation to maximise the game’s use within the learning context is apriority, and is likely to require the teacher to have reasonably extensive experience of thegame before implementing it in the classroom. Familiarity with the game will also increasethe teacher’s ability to identify and deal with any problems that arise during play, such asthose relating to game-related problem-solving or technical glitches. However, it would bewise to have a contingency plan that can be quickly and easily implemented, either forindividual students or the class as a whole, if a technical problem arises and game play cannotproceed as planned.There are a number of key technical and practical issues that must be addressed.Financial considerations include the cost of the game, licensing fees, and the expense ofpurchasing supplementary content. Teac

games (e.g., Super Mario Bros-style games); strategy and logic (puzzle) games; role playing games (where the player takes on a character in a virtual world); realistic simulations (e.g., flight simulations); first-person sh