Reflecting On Worldview, Ideology, And Citizenship

In the Figure 13-3 and Figure 13-4 photo exercise, your worldviewhelps you understand and interpret what you see. Your personalideology is shaped in part by the ideologies that surround you. Personalideology suggests how you should respond to particular issues, based onyour worldview. With this explanation in mind and with respect to thesoldiers in Afghanistan, think about how you could describe yourworldview and how you could describe your personal ideology.Legal and Political Understandings of CitizenshipYour answer to the question asked on page 442, What is yourcitizenship?, may be quite simple and straightforward to you. In themost basic terms, citizenship is a form of identification or a label thatyou might use to describe yourself in relation to a country: Canadian,American, Chinese, French, or some other term. This label is based onwhere you were born, who your parents are, or some combination ofthese and additional factors. However, how a country and societydefine and identify its citizens suggests a collective worldview, and howyou think of, feel about, and express your citizenship is influenced byyour worldview and ideology. As you read through this section andconsider the concept of citizenship, note the various ways in which itis viewed and expressed through action. Note the ideologies you seedemonstrated.From a legal perspective, citizenship is based on two key principles: jus soli (right of the soil)—a person’s citizenship or nationalityis determined by place of birthjus sanguinis (right of blood)—the citizenship and nationalityof a child is the same as the natural parents, wherever the childis bornMost countries use a combination of jus soli and jus sanguinis aswell as naturalization—the process of applying for citizenship—todetermine who may (and may not) legally identify oneself as a citizenof the country.Jus soli has been used as the basis for determining citizenshipamong many countries that want to increase their citizenship or that,like Canada and the United States, historically increased theirpopulation through settlement. Some countries base citizenship on jussanguinis to maintain national and cultural identity, and for historicalreasons (for example, past wars or complex cultural or ethnic issues).For example, Finland applies jus sanguinis in that it offers a “right ofreturn” to ethnic Finns who live in the former Soviet Union and whopass a Finnish language examination. The modern state of Israel offersan automatic right to citizenship to any immigrant who is Jewish bybirth or conversion, or who has a Jewish parent or grandparent. Israelalso grants Israeli citizenship to all ethnic and religious groups based onThe modern state of Israel wasformed in 1948 as a Jewish statein accordance with a UnitedNations decision.Part 4 Issue: To what extent should my actions as a citizen be shaped by an ideology?447

birth in Israel (but with the limitations regarding military service notedon page 444) and allows naturalization after living in the country forfive years and acquiring a basic knowledge of Hebrew.In comparison to other European countries, France was early toadopt the principle of jus soli. Germany and many other Europeancountries used jus sanguinis; for example, until 2000, Germancitizenship was granted primarily on the basis of jus sanguinis, whichseriously limited the naturalization of foreigners living in Germany andtheir children. This had a tremendous impact on Gastarbeiter, the“guest workers” recruited from places such as Italy, Turkey, Greece, andPortugal for industrial jobs in West Germany during the 1950s, 1960s,and 1970s. Significant revisions in 2000, however, included thefollowing:Children born in Germany to foreign parents may acquire Germannationality if certain conditions are met. They must however decidebetween the ages of 18 and 23 whether to retain their Germannationality or the nationality of their parents As a general rule, foreigners now have the right to become naturalizedafter eight years of habitual residence in Germany, provided they meet therelevant conditions, instead of the fifteen years previously required. Theminimum period of residence for spouses of German nationals is usuallyshorter. For naturalization, it is necessary to prove adequate knowledge ofGerman. A clean record and commitment to the tenets of the Basic Law(Constitution) are further criteria. The person to be naturalized must alsobe able to financially support him/herself.The aim of avoiding multiple nationality remains a key feature of theGerman law on nationality. In general, those applying for naturalizationmust give up their foreign nationality.—Source: “Law on Nationality.”Welcome to the Federal Foreign Office, September 16, lThe German example points to some critical issues about howcitizenship is defined and what it entails: the situation of children bornto foreigners, multiple citizenship, and the relationships betweeneconomic roles and political rights in a country.For example, if you are born in Canada, you are most likely aCanadian citizen, regardless of your parents’ nationality, becauseCanada applies the principle of jus soli. Children born outside Canadabut to one Canadian citizen can be Canadian citizens also—thus jussanguinis also applies to some extent. Canada also allows forcitizenship by naturalization—granting citizenship to applicants whomeet certain requirements (for example, permanent residency, basicability in spoken English or French, and knowledge of Canada).448Chapter 13: Reflecting on Worldview, Ideology, and Citizenship

Even Canada’s relatively unrestrictive citizenship policies can havepotentially negative implications, however. Take the example of aCanadian child whose parent is being deported as an illegal immigrant.In the case of Baker v. Canada (Ministry of Citizenship andImmigration), 1999, Mavis Baker was to be deported because sheimmigrated to Canada from Jamaica illegally. Baker appealed herdeportation on the basis of “humanitarian and compassionate” groundsbecause the deportation would affect her four children who were bornin Canada during her 11 years of working and living in Canada. MavisBaker’s appeal was denied.The United States applies the principle of jus soli; thus, generally,children born in the United States are American citizens. However, theUnited States has been concerned about the rising number of childrenof illegal immigrants attending public schools in the United States.Some authorities have argued that providing school, as well as healthcare and social services, for children of illegal immigrants is too costlyand essentially rewards families for the parents’ illegal immigration.Although a 1982 US Supreme Court ruling overturned a Texas lawthat denied public school education to undocumented children, anddeclared that children of illegal immigrants are entitled to free publiceducation, California and other states have introduced propositions torestrict access to education and services. In 2004, it was estimated thatthe state of California spent US 7.7 billion educating undocumentedchildren. Critics, however, say that allowing states to refuse publiceducation to children of illegal immigrants creates a second class ofcitizenship.Australia formerly used jus soli as the basis for citizenship butmodified its laws so that children born in Australia to foreign parentswho are not permanent residents become Australian citizens at the ageof 10 if they meet certain requirements. Again, this has been criticizedas making the children of foreign parents second-class citizens, in thiscase, until the age of 10.Ireland also considered modifying its laws that automaticallygranted citizenship to children born in Ireland. The goal of the changewas to end what was described as “citizenship tourism”: pregnantwomen travelling to Ireland to give birth so that their children wouldgain Irish citizenship, and thus a European Union passport.Rather than modify its jus soli laws, India moved to abolish jus soliand use jus sanguinis instead. The change started in 1987 and meantthat children born in the country are citizens only if one parent is alsoan Indian citizen. In 2004, India further modified the laws so that achild cannot become a citizen of India if one parent immigrated toIndia illegally. India also grants citizenship through naturalization. Indiadoes not, however, allow citizens to hold Indian citizenship as well asthe citizenship of another country; it does allow for a person to bePart 4 Issue: To what extent should my actions as a citizen be shaped by an ideology?449

PAUSEANDREFLECTWhat worldview or ideologymight lead a country to use jussanguinis as the basis for itscitizenship policy? Whatworldview or ideology mightlead a country to apply jus solias the basis for its citizenshippolicy? Why might a countrychange the basis on which itdetermines citizenship? Usingan example of a specific countryas the basis for discussion,determine what the criteria forcitizenship suggest about thecountry’s image of its citizenryand the ideal or model citizen.recognized as a citizen of another country and an “Overseas Citizen ofIndia,” but this is not full Indian citizenship.Why is multiple citizenship an issue for some countries? Whilesome countries might view dual (or even triple) citizenship as a citizen’sright to recognize his or her heritage as well as his or her present andfuture home—and might even see it as an advantage to a country’sbusinesspeople—others view it as a potential source of conflictingloyalties or legal confusions. Germany, as already noted, allows dualnationality in only limited circumstances. Denmark does not allow dualnationality at all. The United States takes the following stance: The US Government recognizes that dual nationality exists but doesnot encourage it as a matter of policy because of the problems it maycause. Claims of other countries on dual national US citizens may conflictwith US law, and dual nationality may limit US Government efforts toassist citizens abroad. The country where a dual national is locatedgenerally has a stronger claim to that person’s allegiance.—Source: “Dual Nationality.” US Department of State.http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis pa tw/cis/cis 1753.htmlBroader Understandings of CitizenshipPAUSEANDREFLECTIf you had citizenship in morethan one country, which wouldclaim your greatest allegiance?In what hypothetical situationsmight multiple citizenship createa conflict? What competingideologies might give rise toconflict?450The question of multiple citizenship highlights diverse and sometimesconflicting worldviews of what being a citizen means. What does theterm citizenship mean to you?To some individuals, citizenship is a matter solely of where you areborn, where your parents were born, your heritage, and your past. Toothers, it is a matter of where you live and work, your present loyalty,and where you see your future. Additionally, citizenship can reflectwhat kind of society you wish to support, what society offers thegreatest benefits to you, and what obligations and duties societyrequires of you.As noted in the Canadian Oath of Citizenship, being a citizen inCanada means, among other things, accepting the laws of the country.Canada’s laws, like laws of all countries, reflect the ideals of thecountry. However, the requirement that citizens observe the country’slaws is a minimal requirement of citizenship. In ancient Athens,citizenship involved a moral right and duty to actively participate inthe politics of the city. This republican understanding of citizenshipseeks to create a sense of belonging to a community. The citizenbecomes a stakeholder in the well-being of the republic. Civic andpolitical participation, in this context, is understood as the obligationsthat citizens have to the state and society as a result of being grantedrights.Chapter 13: Reflecting on Worldview, Ideology, and Citizenship

According to a literature review conducted by Canadian PolicyResearch Networks,Citizenship is composed of three dimensions: (1) rights andresponsibilities, (2) access to these rights and responsibilities, and (3)feelings of belonging, that is, identity. Being a citizen, therefore, is morethan possessing formal, theoretical rights to citizenship. It involves thecapacity of the individual citizen to exercise actively the three dimensionsof citizenship. Being a citizen is defined as having the resources, capacityand opportunity to participate in the different areas of adult life.—Source: Canadian Policy Research Networks,“Youth and Citizenship: Overview” September 2004, p. 1.http://www.cprn.org/documents/34016 en.pdfCivic participation can be direct or indirect and there is aminimalist conception as well as an activist understanding of one’s roleas a citizen. People can get involved in their communities directly byattending town hall meetings, protesting or demonstrating,participating in non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and so on.They can also get involved indirectly by writing letters to the editors ofnewspapers or by contributing money to social organizations. Gettinginvolved in these ways can be called citizen advocacy. Figures 13-5 and13-6 show examples of people being involved in their communitiesthrough protest. Keep in mind that protest is just one way in whichcitizens can become involved in their communities.In one study of citizenship, the following understandings ofcitizenship were presented: Liberal/Individualistic—Citizenship is a status. It is a function ofthe political realm to protect and maximise individual interests.Individuals are urged to take up their civic responsibilities ratherthan to rely on governments.Communitarian—Citizenship is a practice. It arises from a senseof belonging to a community, and wishing to work with others toachieve the common good. An individual’s identity is producedthrough its relations with others—creating a sense of group identity.Civil republican—Citizenship is a practice. It is concerned withdeveloping an overarching sense of civic identity. It is shaped by acommon public culture and a sense of belonging to a particularnation state. In particular it desires to create a reciprocalrelationship between the individual and the state. It is sometimesreferred to as “civic morality.”—Julie Nelson and David Kerr, “Active Citizenship: Definitions, Goals, andPractices” (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority/National Foundation forEducational Research, background paper, September 2005). InternationalReview of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks Internet Archive.http://www.inca.org.uk/pdf/Active citizenship background paper.pdfPart 4 Issue: To what extent should my actions as a citizen be shaped by an ideology?451

University of New Brunswick Social Studies Education professorAlan Sears, having studied various models of citizenship, notes thatthere are four elements that all of the models studied have in common:1. A sense of membership or identity with some wider community, fromthe local to the global.2. A set of rights and freedoms, such as freedom of thought or the right tovote.3. A corresponding set of duties or responsibilities, such as an obligationto respect the rights of others or a duty to obey the law.4. A set of virtues and capacities that enable a citizen to effectively engagein and reflect upon questions and concerns of civic interest.—Source: Mark Evans and Cecilia Reynolds, “Introduction:Educating for Global Citizenship in a Changing World”, pp. tizenship/intro.pdfWhich of the ideas above reflect your view of citizenship in Canada?What ideologies underlie each of the above understandings? Followingyour completion of the Voices activity that follows, identify which ofthese understandings would be most in agreement with the ideas ofAlain Renaut cited in Voices. Figure 13-5 In 2006, daycare operators protest thefederal government’s plan for daycarefunding on the steps of the AlbertaLegislature Building.Figure 13-6In March 2008, protesters in Montréal demonstratedagainst alleged police brutality.452Chapter 13: Reflecting on Worldview, Ideology, and Citizenship

Understandings of CitizenshipIn the following excerpts, three writers seek to describeand differentiate citizenship. What definition bestmatches your current understanding of your citizenship?Does any definition expand on or challenge your own definition?In writing about the French ideas of republicanism, Sophie Duchesne notes thefollowing:Citizenship and national identities are central elements of political systems.They account for the political link, i.e., for the relationship between thecitizens as well as between citizens and rulers. Citizenship is often analyzedthrough the notions of rights and obligations They also encompass a set ofvalues or moral qualities as well as a series of social roles —Dr Sophie Duchesne, Coordinator of the European Research Group“European Democracies”, Department of Politics andInternational Relations, University of Oxford.In a paper entitled “Is Citizenship Enough?” Antonio N. Álvarez Benavides ofthe Universidad Complutense de Madrid outlined the important link betweencivic participation and identity. civic participation (obtained through legal equality) creates civicidentity Participation gives rise to civic links between individuals, as well asbetween them and the community they are participating in. Therefore we canclaim that dynamics of participation generate a type of civic identity that is notbased on belonging to any nationality or nation Civic participation,understood as a basic element of citizenship, creates a sense of belonging (tofeel like a member) of a community.—Antonio N. Álvarez Benavides, “Is Citizenship Enough?”(European Conference on Equal Opportunities, Antwerp,Belgium, paper, September 13–15, 2006), p. AlvarezBenavides.pdfReviewing the works of Alain Renaut (a contemporary thinker from France),Peter Berkowitz (a philosopher from Harvard University) suggests that Renauthas solved the dilemma that seems to exist within modern liberalism—finding the right balance between individualism and rights (supporting thesupremacy of the individual) and collectivism and responsibilities (providingfor the needs of the community). Renaut, according to this article, hasredefined liberal democratic citizenship: Renaut provides principled means for distinguishing autonomy fromindividualism. Individualism stands for the independence of the individual, in the sense ofthe right to be left alone, to be free from the will of the collectivity, to do one’sown thing.Part 4 Issue: To what extent should my actions as a citizen be shaped by an ideology?453

Autonomy involves grasping the necessary limits of freedom and imposingthem on oneself. Individualism is accidental, what an individual happens to be doing. Auto

446 Chapter 13:Reflecting on Worldview, Ideology, and Citizenship Influences of Worldview and Ideology on Citizenship As you saw in Part 1 of this book, your worldview may lead you toward an ideology that influences the ways you think and act.As you will explore in this chapter, worldview and ideology shape your evolving role as a citizen.