Socio-economic Optimum Between Energy Efficiency, Renewable Energy .
Socio-economic optimumbetween energy efficiency,renewable energy, electrificationand sector coupling1 - 09-09-2011
ContentsCentral findings . 3Introduction and purpose . 9Method: . 9Reduction needs . 10Reduction measures . 12Analysis results . 15Appendix . 199 December 2019Notes drafted for Danfoss by Ea Energy AnalysesEa Energy AnalysesGammeltorv 8, 6. tv.1457 Copenhagen K, DenmarkT: 45 60 39 17 16Email: info@eaea.dkWebsite: www.eaea.dk2 - 09-09-2011
Central findingsThe Danish Government has determined that Denmark must reduce its CO2emissions by 70 percent compared to 1990. The purpose of this analysis is todetermine the socio-economic optimum between developments with renewableenergy, energy efficiency and initiatives in electrification and sector coupling,thereby shedding more light on how Denmark can realise its objective as cheaplyas possible.The analysis is based primarily on data and results from the report 'Climate KPIsfor the Confederation of Danish Industry (DI)', which paves the way with a 70percent reduction of CO2 emissions in 2030, as well as an analysis for 'Synergy andRenovation on the Agenda' (original title: Synergi og Renovering på Dagsordenen),which calculates the socio-economic optimum between energy efficiencyinitiatives and supply measures.Initiatives have been calculated for the following sectors: Construction, industrial,electric and district heating supply and transport as well as various cross-cuttingmeasures, e.g. biofuels andelectro-fuels.CO reduction needs in 2030 in2relation to baselinetonnesMillion Mio.CO2tonCO2In order to achieve a 70 percent20 Analysed inthis noteobjective, it has been assessed as12.7necessary to deliver a reduction15of approx. 17.5 million tonnesCO2 compared to the baseline10 OtherAgriculture0.4incl.1projection for 2019 . This alsoLULUCF3,13.15assumes a total reduction ofEnvironmentapprox. 4.9 Mt from initiatives in1.40agriculture, LULUCF andenvironment so that the resultingFigure 1: CO2 reduction needs in 2030 in relationto baseline in order to achieve a 70% reductionshortfall requiring action from theobjective.energy and transport sectorconstitutes 12.7 million (see Figure 1).At the request of the client, the analysed initiatives are broken down into threegeneral categories: Energy Efficiency (EE), Electrification and Sector Coupling(E&SC) and Renewable Energy (RE). For example, heat pumps, electric vehicles and1As the 2019 baseline projection had not been published at the time of the analysis, a baseline has been usedbased on the 2018 baseline projection corrected for initiatives that were adopted as part of the 2018 DanishEnergy Agreement. According to the baseline projection the shortfall in 2030 constitutes 17.0 million tonnes ofCO2 while the baseline used in this study shows a shortfall of 17.5 Mt.3 - 09-09-2011
hydrogen power plants are placed under E&SC. The full CO2 benefits ofelectrification and sector coupling can only be achieved if these plants are suppliedwith renewable energy. The analysis is thus based on the assumption thatincreased electricity use for E&SC is supplied (and priced) with renewable energy.The development of renewable energy is thus also included under E&SC.Categorisation of mitigation measuresEnergy efficiency- Energy renovation of the existing building stock- Energy optimisation of building installations and operations- Energy savings in industryElectrification and sector coupling- Electric vehicles- Increasing the spread of electric heat pumps- Increased spread of district heating grid- Production of electrofuels- Developing renewable electricity capacity to cover theincreased electrical consumption from electrification and sectorcouplingRenewable energy- Use of biodiesel and bioethanol for biogas as a replacement fordiesel, petrol and natural gas- Developing renewable power capacity in the electric and districtheating sector, including ensuring that Denmark is not a netimporter of electricity by 2030- Diversion of plastic from waste incinerationPrimary results: The initiatives identified in the analysis lead to a total reduction of CO2emissions of 9.6 million tonnes of CO2 in 2030, corresponding to areduction of 66 percent compared to 1990. The remaining CO2 reductionsneeded to achieve the goal of 70 percent could be achieved, for example,by the additional production of electro-fuels, but this would presumablyincrease the total reduction costs considerably. It is expected thattechnological developments and innovation can lead to cheaper initiativesbeing developed to help achieve the final 4 percent reduction. The biggest contribution to the 70 percent goal comes from E&SC and thecorresponding RE development. Implementation of E&SC reducesgreenhouse gas emissions by 5.6 million tonnes of CO2 in 2030,4 - 09-09-2011
corresponding to 44 percent of the necessary reduction in order to live upto the 70 percent goal. Heat pumps, both household and industrial,2contribute to a significant reduction of 2.2 million tonnes of CO2, whileinitiatives to electrify the transport sector (excl. electro-fuels) provide areduction of 1.5 million tonnes of CO2.Other renewable energy initiatives (primarily the production and use ofbiogas and biofuels) give a reduction of 2 million tonnes of CO2 in 2030,corresponding to 16 percent of the 70 percent goal.Implementation of existing energy efficiency technologies in buildings andindustry also provides 2 million tonnes of CO2 in 2030, or 16 percent of the70 percent goal. Without investments in energy efficiency, the totaladditional costs3 in the period leading up to 2030 will be around EUR 4billion as opposed to around EUR 2.1 billion with energy efficiencymeasures (see Figure 2).Over the period 2020 to 2030, energy efficiency investments are thusestimated to entail socio-economic savings of around EUR 1.8 billion4, ifthe alternative is increased developments with renewable energy.Investments in energy efficiency can thus almost halve net additional costsfor the period leading up to 2030. The socio-economic savings of investingin energy efficiency consist of lower fuel and energy costs, including savingon the costs of expanding the electricity grid and developing electricitystorage.The cheapest socio-economic solution for achieving a 66 percentreduction would result in necessary investments corresponding to EUR23.4 billion5 for electrification and sector coupling initiatives, energyefficiency and the production of renewable energy. Of this, EUR 3 billion6would be investments in energy efficiency. If investments are not made inenergy efficiency, the total additional investments required to achieve a66 percent reduction (solely through renewable energy and E&SC)increase to around EUR 27.7 billion7.2Heat pumps are also expected to play an important part in the district heating supply in 2030, but thedevelopment of heat pumps in district heating supplies is already included in the presented baseline thatcalculates the effect of the 2018 Energy Agreement. This means that heat pumps in the district heating systemare not included in CO2 contributions in this analysis.3Additional costs correspond to expenditure for investments minus savings in the form of fuel and investments inrenewable energy.4 DKK 14 billion (currency exchange based on Morningstar data)5 DKK 175 billion.6DKK 23 billion.7 DKK 207 billion.5 - 09-09-2011
The costs of instruments is not included in the costing of energy efficiency,renewable energy and E&SC 8.35,0AccumulatedAkkumuleretadditional costsmeromkostning,eksklusiveexcluding energyenergieffektiviseringefficiency30,0DKK billion25,0AkkumuleretAccumulatedmeromkostning inklusiveadditional costsenergieffektivisering20,0including 5202420232022202120200,0Figure 2: Accumulated additional costs for achieving a 66 percent reduction in greenhouse gases by2030, including and excluding energy efficiency costs respectively. The costs do not include initiativesadopted by the 2018 Danish Energy Agreement; similarly, mitigation contributions from agricultureand the environment have not been valued. The reduction costs are calculated for 2030. Thereduction plan and dosing procedure for initiatives between 2020 and 2030 has not been analysed;the indicated costs presume a linear development in the cost process between 2020 and 2030.Selected key figuresFigure 3 summarises selected key figures from the analysis. All the initiativespresented and corresponding costs go beyond measures that are already in place,e.g. in the 2018 Danish Energy Agreement.Column 1 shows that the total additional investments9 in EUR billion comprisesaround EUR 23.4 billion10, of which the largest share is in electrification and sectorcoupling. Investments are shown here as the absolute value of investment overthe period 2020-30.8Instrument costs could consist, for example, of costs for public information campaigns or deadweight loss inconnection with support costs. The costs would depend on what regulation and type of instruments were usedfrom a political standpoint.9 Additional investments correspond to new investments that are necessary in order to achieve a 66 percentreduction.10 DKK 175 billion6 - 09-09-2011
If investments are not made in energy efficiency, the total additional investmentsmust be increased to EUR 27.7 billion11 in order to achieve a 66 percent reduction.This covers the fact that energy efficiency initiatives themselves result in aninvestment of around EUR 3 billion12, but save around 7.3 billion13 in investmentsin the electrical grid, solar panels and wind power. The total investment needs arethus reduced by around EUR 4.2 billion14.Column 2 shows the savings15 on fuel and imported electricity. The biggest shareof the savings is in this category. Both electrification and sector couplingtechnologies and energy efficiency measures result in considerable savings. Thereis a slight increase in fuel costs in RE because bioethanol and biofuel are moreexpensive than diesel and petrol. The savings in the period 2020 to 2030correspond to EUR 21.2 billion16.Column 3 shows the annual net costs17, which total around EUR 388 million18 in2030, of which EE measures contribute with a net saving. Without investments inenergy efficiency, the total additional costs19 in the period leading up to 2030 willbe around EUR 4 billion20 as opposed to around EUR 2.1 billion21 with energyefficiency measures. Over the period 2020 to 2030, energy efficiency investmentsare thus estimated to entail socio-economic savings of around EUR 1.8 billion22, ifthe alternative is increased developments with renewable energy. Thiscorresponds to almost half of the total additional costs23.Net costs include the costs of fuel/electricity, annuity from investments (capitalcosts), changes in operations and maintenance and multiple benefits, for example11DKK 207 billionDKK 23 billion13 DKK 55 billion14 DKK 32 billion15 Savings concerns lower costs for the purchasing of electricity and fuel as a result of investments in newtechnology.16 DKK 159 billion17 Net costs express the total cost connected to the initiatives and is the sum of the changes in capital costs(related to investments) and changes in operating costs and fuel savings.18 DKK 2.9 billion19 Additional costs correspond to expenditure for investments minus the savings of investing in energy efficiencyin the form of lower fuel and energy costs, including saved expenditure that would otherwise be spent onexpanding the electricity grid and developing electricity storage.1220DKK 30 billionDKK 16 billion22 DKK 14 billion23 The reduction plan and dosing procedure for initiatives between 2020 and 2030 has not been analysed. Theestimated savings of DKK 14 billion between 2020 and 2030 presumes a linear increase in savings, from DKK 0 in2020 to DKK 2.6 billion in 2030.217 - 09-09-2011
the effects on health. It is assumed that the investments could be paid off over thetechnology's lifetime with a real interest rate of 4 percent.If it was decided not to implement the EE initiatives, it would not only be annualsavings of EUR 267.6 million24 that would be lost, but the costs in the other sectorswould also increase by a combined EUR/year 80.2 million25, if the alternative is -60%-80%Totale investeringer Brændselsbesparelser Nettoomkostninger2020-3020302030mia.krmio. kr./årmio. kr./årEEVEE&SKManko (Potentielt mere elektrofuel)CO2 red. bidrag til70%VE investering fra E&SKFigure 3: This shows the amount per category for investments, fuel savings and net costs,as well as how much these contribute towards the CO2 reductions. The absolute values arealso shown.development of renewable energy.Column 4 shows the extent to which each of the categories contributes towardsthe 70 percent goal (million tonnes of CO2 reduction). The biggest contributioncomes from the sector coupling initiatives. The identified measures achieve a totalreduction of around 66 percent compared to 1990. The last reductions could beachieved using electrofuels.2425DKK 2 billionDKK/year 0.6 billion8 - 09-09-2011Total investments2020-30 DKKbillionFuel savings 2030million DKK/yearNet costs 2030million DDK/yearCO2 rev.contribution to 70%
Introduction and purposeThe Danish Government has decided that Denmark must reduce its climate gasemissions by 70 percent compared to 1990 figures. By all accounts, this is a highlyambitious goal and requires effort from all fronts. The government in 2019presented is a proposal for a binding climate agreement and then to initiatenegotiations on a final action plan.Since summer 2019, Ea Energy Analyses has drafted two reports on the economicsof the green transition: one is an analysis for the Confederation of Danish Industry(DI), which paves the way towards a 70% reduction of climate gases by 2030. Theother is a cross-sectional analysis for 'Synergy and Renovation on the Agenda'(original title: Synergi og Renovering på Dagsordenen), which calculates the socioeconomic optimum between energy efficiency initiatives and supply measures.The purpose of this analysis, which is based on the aforementioned reports, is toshed light on the socio-economic optimum between developments withrenewable energy, energy efficiency and initiatives in electrification and sectorcoupling. In comparison with the analysis for DI, a more comprehensive analysisof energy efficiency initiatives has been conducted here26. The basis for theanalysis is that Denmark must realise the goal of a 70 percent reduction ingreenhouse gas emissions by 2030 as cheaply as possible.Method:The analysis focuses on initiatives in construction, industry, electric and districtheating supply and transport as well as a number of cross-cutting measures, e.g.biofuels and electro-fuels. In establishing the initiatives, a long-term perspectivetowards a fossil-free energy system in 2050 has been taken into account, i.e. thatthe measures do not halt or hinder the long-term transition, but pave the waytowards a fossil-free energy system. The initiatives do not constitute an exhaustivelist of potential measures, but in our opinion comprise the lion's share of relevantinitiatives.The initiatives are compared with a baseline without the initiatives. The baseline isbased on the Danish Energy Agency's baseline projection from 2018, but includesestimates of significance from Denmark's 2018 Energy Agreement: Three wind farmsA pool for technology-neutral tendersReduction of electric heating tariffsEnergy saving effortsRevised estimate for biogas production26The Analysis for Synergy and Renovation on the Agenda calculated the total socio-economic potential forenergy savings in 2030 and 2050 respectively without any special focus on the 70% goal and without taking theinitiatives decided in the 2018 Energy Agreement into account. The analysis for the Confederation of DanishIndustry (DI) identified measures for achieving a 66 percent reduction in 2030, although there were certain EEinitiatives (electricity savings and certain heating savings) that were not analysed in great detail.9 - 09-09-2011
It also includes minor changes due to the calculations being conducted using EA’smodels and tools for the Danish energy sector. This ensures that the initiatives andbaseline are compared according to the same conditions.The calculations focus on initiatives in energy-related greenhouse gas emissions.As the reduction goal covers the total greenhouse gas emissions in Denmark,estimates for the development and potential of greenhouse gas emissions inagriculture, industrial gases and other emissions have also been added.Reduction needsThe figure below shows how the emissions in the 2018 baseline projection arebroken down into four sectors.Due to the Energy Agreement, adopted after the 2018 baseline projection,emissions in 2030 are expected to be 38.8 million tonnes of CO2 /year rather than51 million tonnes of CO2 /year. This constitutes the baseline for the analyses. Thefigure also shows the values for 2030 with a 60 percent and 70 percent reductioncompared to 1990.UN base 70%21.210EnergirelateredeEnergy-relatedFN1990UN Basisårbase 030202520202015201020052000199501990Million tonnes CO2 equivalentsMio. ton ironment60%70%Figure 3: Emissions in the 2018 baseline projections. Revised baselines and reduction goals areshown as dots.The table below shows the reduction needs depending on the specific reductiongoal. The first column shows what the emissions need to be reduced to by 2030 inorder to achieve the goal. The second column shows how much the emissionsneed to be reduced by in 2030 compared to the baseline to achieve the goal. It isevident from this that a reduction of 17.5 million tonnes is needed to achieve thegovernment’s goal of a 70 percent reduction in relation to 1990.10 - 09-09-2011
Maximumemissions 2030Reduction needsin relation tobaselineMt CO2Reduction needs inrelation toagriculture/environment60% red.28.310.45.565% red.24.814.09.170% red.21.217.512.7Million tonnesTable 1: Reduction needs dependent on goals.Part of these reductions is expected to beMitigationMillion tonnesprovided by agriculture and environment. Incontributions 2030this context, environment deals with theAgriculture1.3treatment of wastewater and industrialAgriculture LULUCF1.8gases. An economic calculation has not beenThe environment1.4made for these sectors, but it has beenOther0.4assessed how large a reduction they can beTotal4.9expected to provide. Table 2 summarisesTable 2: Mitigation contributions fromthe contributions.sectors not treated in detail in thecalculationsAgriculture constitutes a relatively large share of the total greenhouse gasemissions in Denmark in 2030. It is assumed that measures concerning themanagement of crops, fertiliser, domestic animals and land use will contributewith a reduction of around 1.3 million tonnes of CO2, corresponding to a reductionof around 10 percent compared to 1990’s agricultural figures. This assessment isbased on reports from the agricultural sector.In addition, agriculture releases greenhouse gas emissions as a result of changes insoil carbon balance (LULUCF). Here, a total reduction potential of 1.8 milliontonnes of CO2 is estimated. Emissions from LULUCF are not included in the 1990emission figures that have been used as the basis for the 70 percent reductiongoal.In environment, a mitigation contribution of 50 percent in relation to 2020 isassumed, corresponding to 63 percent in relation to 1990.11 - 09-09-2011
CO2 reduction needs in 2030 inrelation to baseline20 AnalysedMillion tonnes CO2The category 'Other' coversemissions quantified by DCE inaddition to those emissionsdirectly related to Danish energyconsumption, in particularlycross-border corrections fordiesel and volatile and indirectemissions. A total contribution of0.4 million tonnes of CO2 isestimated, corresponding to 35percent in relation to 2020.15in thisnote12.710 Other0.4Agricultureincl.LULUCF3.15 Environ0ment1.4Figure 4: CO2 reduction needs in 2030 in relationto baselineAfter taking mitigationcontributions from agriculture, environment and indirect emissions into account,the remaining initiatives need to deliver a CO2 reduction of 12.7 million tonnes inorder to achieve the 70 percent goal, as shown in Figure 5.The revised baseline shows a substantial net import of electricity to Denmark in2030. This import is attributed to a CO2 emission of 200 g/kWh based on modelcalculations. Emissions connected to imports are included in the Danish figures. Itshould be highlighted that it has not yet been clarified which methodicalaccounting principle will be used to handle the import/export of electricity inconnection with fulfilment of the 70 percent goal.Reduction measuresInitiatives in construction, industry, electric and district heating supplies andtransport are broken down into three general categories: Energy Efficiency (EE),Electrification and Sector Coupling (E&SC) and Renewable Energy (RE).The individual measures and a detailed description of the methodology can befound in the report 'Climate KPIs for the Confederation of Danish Industry (DI) (EAEnergy Analyses, 2019), which can be downloaded from Ea’s website. As theanalysed CO2 reduction initiatives result in a reduction of 66 percent on their own,in general all the analysed initiatives are included in the analysis. Individual energyefficiency measures have been left out however, as their margin reduction costsare higher than RE-based supply.12 - 09-09-2011
Energy efficiency (EE)Covers technologies that optimise energy transformation or technologies thatoptimise energy consumption via thermal insulation, dosing (valves) or intelligentbuilding systems, to name some examples. Energy efficiency also affects sectorcoupling and the renewable energy categories – for example, the efficiency of aheat pump can be increased when combined with a low temperature districtheating grid (4th generation district heating) or by using excess heat.Electrification and sector coupling (E&SC)Concerns technology, which optimises the interaction between energy productionand energy consumption by exploiting the conversion potential and the flexibilitythat can be created across the energy system. This category includes the energytransformative technologies, for example heat pumps, modern cooling systems,power to gas and electric vehicles, as well as energy storage and the resulting shiftin energy consumption (including intelligent building systems). Sector couplingcontributes towards an exploitation of the flexibility found primarily in thermalsystems and gas supplies to optimise the potential of fluctuating electricityproduction based on renewable sources.The full CO2 benefits of electrification and sector coupling can only be achieved ifsector coupling technologies such as heat pumps, electric vehicles and electrolysisplants are supplied with renewable energy. The analysis is thus based on theassumption that increased electricity for electrification and sector coupling issupplied (and priced) with renewable energy. Calculation-wise, the RE electricityconsumption and its costs are considered as part of the electrification and sectorcoupling measures; we have opted however to itemise the cost in a number of thesubsequent figures13 - 09-09-2011
Renewable energy (RE)Energy production based onrenewable energy, coverselectricity production via solarpanels, wind turbines andbiomass, district heatingproduction via biomass, biogasand solar heating and theproduction of biofuels such asbiodiesel, bioethanol and biogas.Electric heat pumps, electricvehicles and electrofuels arehandled as E&SC initiatives.Table 3 summarises how thevarious initiatives are classified.Biogas, biofuel and electro-fuelsare cross-cutting measures, whichcan have influence across thesectors.Electro-fuels are a scalableinitiative that can in principlereplace the use of fossil fuels inall sectors. Electro-fuels areassumed to be produced fromhydrogen generated byelectrolysis plants, which useelectricity from renewable energysources.InitiativeBuildingsBuilding envelopeEEManagement/heating installationsEE(E&SC)Switch to individual heat pumpsE&SCConversion to district heatingE&SCIndustryEfficiencyEEHeat pumps/electric boilersE&SCBiomass/biofuelREElectric and district heating supplyRE in electricity supplyREHeat pumps in district heating supplyE&SCBiomass, solar power in district heatingsupply- 09-09-2011RETransportElectric carsE&SCElectric light commercial vehiclesE&SCElectric heavy goods vehiclesE&SCElectric busesE&SCBiogas for heavy goods vehicles, lightcommercial vehicles and busesElectric ferries shore powerREE&SCCross-cutting initiativesBiogasREBiofuelREElectrofuelsE&SCBiogas and biofuel are assessedTable 3: Categorisation of measuresas being scalable to a morelimited extent, as the production requires biological material.14 Category
Analysis results12CO2 savings, in million tonnesReduction of emissionsFigure 6 summarises the CO2reductions divided into the threecategories: E&SC, RE and EE. It isassumed that electro-fuelscontribute with a reduction of 1million tonnes of CO2. The cost ofelectro-fuels is estimated at DKK1,850 per tonne of CO2.1086420TotalEE REVE E&SKE&SCIn total a reduction of 9.6 milliontonnes is achieved in relation to theFigure 6: Resulting reduction of CO2 emissionsbaseline, which roughly correspondsfrom the initiatives in 2030.to a 66 percent reduction comparedto 1990. In order to achieve the 70 percent goal, the emissions must be furtherreduced by 3.1 million tonnes. The 70 percent goal could be achieved by increasingthe share of electro-fuels, for example. This is not shown in the figure, as electrofuels are among the most expensive initiatives and it is possible that by 2030 therewill be other, cheaper reduction possibilities.The energy efficiency initiativesresult in a total saving of around EUR267.6 million, while E&SC initiativesbring an additional cost of EUR 334.5million and the RE initiatives EUR334.5 million.6.000Annual costs, million DKK/yearTotal additional costs, 2030The total additional costs ofachieving the reductions of 9.6million tonnes of CO2 are aroundEUR 388 million27 annually in 2030,as shown in Figure -1.000costs-2.000-3.000EEVEREE&SKE&SCTotalFigure 7: The annual additional costs in 2030of achieving a reduction of 10.7 milliontonnes of CO2.27DKK 2.9 billion15 - 09-09-2011
The calculations are based on electro-fuels contributing with a reduction of 1million tonnes of CO2.If electro-fuel production is increased so that the 70 percent goal can be achieved,the annual costs are expected to increase by around EUR/year 776.1 million28.If the EE measures are not implemented but the same CO2 reduction of 66 percentis still to be achieved, the total additional cost increases from EUR/year 388million29 to EUR/year 735.9 million30 in 2030. The EE initiatives thus constitutesavings of EUR 347.931. Assuming there is a linear increase in savings from 2020 to2030, the total savings over the period would be EUR 1.8 billion32.It should be noted that this does not include instrument costs, as these woulddepend on what regulation and type of instruments were used from a politicalstandpoint. Instrument costs could consist, for example, of costs for publicinformation campaigns or deadweight loss in connection with support costs.Figure 8 shows the annual costs broken down into different costing categories. Capital costs: Annual cost of investments. Includes financing. Operation and maintenance (O&M): Running costs for operating andmaintaining the infrastructure and investments, e.g. heating installationsor vehicles Fuel costs: Costs for fuel and imported electricity. For fuel consumptionthat requires investment in underlying Danish production (e.g. installationof new wind power) a share of the fuel costs have been moved to thecapital and O&M costs. Multiple benefits: Benefits derived from energy-saving projects in theform of improved comfort and productivity, for example, as well aslearning and better health.Figure 8 shows net costs. For example, when an electric car replaces a car thatruns on fossil fuels, only the additional costs of the electric car are included. It isclear that the transition results in significantly higher capital costs in all categories,but also lower costs overall for the import of fuel and electricity.28DKK/year 5.8 billionDKK/year 2.9 billion30 DKK/year 5.5 billion31 DKK 2.6 billion32 DKK 14 billion2916 - 09-09-2011
Årlige omkostninger i 2030 fordelt på omkostning for VE el til E&SK, mio. kr./årKapitalomkostning, mio. kr./årBrændselomkostninger mio. kr./årTotalE&SKVED&V, mio. kr./år for VE el til E&SK, mio. kr./årD&V, mio. kr./årMultiple benefits, mio. kr/årFigure 8: The annual additional costs in 2030 of achieving a reduction of 9.6 million tonnes of CO2broken down into different costing typesInitiatives such as the phasing-in of electric cars and electric heat pumps and theproduction of electro-f
efficiency and the production of renewable energy. Of this, EUR 3 billion6 would be investments in energy efficiency. If investments are not made in energy efficiency, the total additional investments required to achieve a 66 percent reduction (solely through renewable energy and E&SC) increase to around EUR 27.7 billion7.
Getting started with the Optimum Business Account Center. An Optimum ID is your key to our services. To take full advantage of your Optimum services, you and your employees will need an Optimum ID or unique username. Creating Optimum IDs to access the Optimum Business Account Center is easy. The first ID created is the Account Manager ID .
time, notably (1) the optimum behavior of the price level; (2) the optimum rate of interest; (3) the optimum stock of capital; and (4) the optimum structure of capital. The optimum behavior of the price level, in· particular, has been discussed for at least a century, though no defmite and demonstrable answer has been reached.
An understanding of the Cape Town, South African Socio- Economic Reality. South African Student Protests as a result of Social and Economic Exclusion. Our US students and the Socio-Psychological Impact on them because of the South African Socio-Economic Context. Study
Guide de 2020 Pourquoi le Livret Optimum reste Incontournable pour votre épargne ? Sommaire . I. Le B.A.ba Optimum 1. Optimum, définition en bref . L'offre: de la 2CV à la Ferrari 5. Fiscalité: l'avantage du contrat Optimum II. Comment optimiser vos frais 1. Droits d'entrée 2. Frais de gestion . I. Le B.A.ba Optimum . Livret .
log on to the Optimum Business Account Center at business.optimum.net or call our Optimum Business Customer Support Team, 24/7 at 1-866-575-8000. If you would like to add any of these Optimum Business services, please call 1-800-725-9626 for more information or chat
achievement on the one hand and affect the socio-economic level of society on the other hand (Abotsi et al., 2018). The results of PISA 2018 show that students with a high socio-economic level achieve higher scores compared to their peers with a lower socio-economic level. Additionally, PISA 2018 research showed that students with a low
students' performance in mathematics to their backgrounds. The chapter then considers these two phenomena in combination (between-school differences in performance and the impact of socio-economic background). In order to examine how socio-economic background is interrelated with equity in the distribution of learning opportunities.
être imposées à l'alimentation dans le cas d'un additif, pesticide, ou d'autres contenus qui sont interdites au Japon, alors que leurs niveaux dépassent les limites approuvées, ou lorsque la présence de mycotoxines, etc. est au-dessus des niveaux admissibles. Par conséquent, les aliments santé et des compléments alimentaires doit être vérifiée sur le site de production avant l .
