Job Creation: A Review Of Policies And Strategies
IRLEIRLE WORKING PAPER#105-11June 2011Job Creation: A Review of Policies and StrategiesAdam Cray, Tram Nguyen, Carol Pranka, Christine Schildt, Julie Sheu,and Erika Rincon WhitcombCite as: Adam Cray, Tram Nguyen, Carol Pranka, Christine Schildt, Julie Sheu, and Erika Rincon Whitcomb. (2011).“Job Creation: A Review of Policies and Strategies.” IRLE Working Paper No. 11.pdfirle.berkeley.edu/workingpapers
Institute for Research on Labor andEmploymentUC BerkeleyTitle:Job Creation: A Review of Policies and StrategiesAuthor:Cray, Adam, University of California, BerkeleyNguyen, Tram, University of California, BerkeleyPranka, Carol, University of California, BerkeleySchildt, Christine, University of California, BerkeleyScheu, Julie, University of California, BerkeleyRincon Whitcomb, Erika, University of California, BerkeleyPublication Date:06-20-2011Series:Working Paper SeriesPublication Info:Working Paper Series, Institute for Research on Labor and Employment, UC tem/2fz5c0b6eScholarship provides open access, scholarly publishingservices to the University of California and delivers a dynamicresearch platform to scholars worldwide.
Job Creation:A Review of Policies & StrategiesAdam Cray, Tram Nguyen, Carol Pranka, ChristineSchildt, Julie Sheu, & Erika Rincon WhitcombJune 2011University of California, BerkeleyInstitute for Research on Labor and Employment
CONTENTSExecutive SummaryIntroduction23Federal- and State-Level Strategies6Interest Rate ReductionsGovernment Hiring and PurchasesInfrastructure InvestmentsTransfer PaymentsShort-Time Compensation ProgramsWorker SubsidiesFederal Hiring Credits677991011Place-Based StrategiesBusiness Attraction and RetentionProvision of Local Economic DataMarketingCreation or Retention of Industrial ZonesTax IncentivesEnterprise ZonesRedevelopment Areas and Tax Increment FinancingBusiness- and Sector-Based StrategiesSupporting Small BusinessesSubsidized/Low-Cost Loans and GrantsU.S. Small Business Administration FinancingU.S.D.A. Rural Development Business ProgramsGovernment Procurement MandatesBusiness IncubatorsGreen Jobs StrategiesWorker-Based StrategiesLocal Hire and First Source Hiring OrdinancesWage Increases—Minimum, Living, and Prevailing WagesHigh Road 33343638444648495152
EXECUTIVE SUMMARYThis report provides a broad survey of economic development policies and strategies thatseek to create jobs. With the U.S. economy struggling to recover from the GreatRecession, job losses and stagnant employment remain pressing challenges across thecountry and in nearly every community.Our report is structured according to four major categories through which to view jobcreation strategies:Federal- and State-Level Strategies. This category can be thought of as encompassingstrategies used to “grow the economic pie.” They consist of fiscal and investment policiesundertaken at the federal or state level to stimulate job creation and economic growth. Theprimary ways to influence job creation at these levels are: interest rate reductions,government hiring and purchases, infrastructure investments, short-time compensationprograms, worker subsidies, and federal hiring credits.Place-Based Strategies. Much economic development takes place at the local level, withlocal governments undertaking a range of activities to attract and retain businesses for thepurposes of increasing jobs in their locality and increasing the tax base. Local strategiesinclude: provision of local economic data, marketing, tax incentives, industrial protectionzones, enterprise zones, and redevelopment areas to target tax benefits and subsidies tobusinesses in disadvantaged areas.Business- and Sector-Based Strategies. Which types of firms to target for job creation isan unsettled question. Here, we examine sources of net new job creation through smallbusinesses and high-growth sectors. Specifically, we review subsidized and low-cost loanprograms, programs administered by the Small Business Administration and U.S.Department of Agriculture, government procurement mandates, business incubators, andgreen job strategies.Worker-Based Strategies. Finally, we discuss strategies focused on increasing equityand job quality—through local hire, wage increases, and high road policies—as a criticalpiece of long-term economic health.We used three general research methods in preparing and structuring this report: literaturereview; information gathering from a lecture series and separate interviews with economicdevelopment scholars and practitioners; and peer review comments from staff at theInstitute for Research on Labor and Employment at the University of California, Berkeley.2
INTRODUCTION2011: In the Midst of a Jobless RecoveryThe severity of the Great Recession suggests that economic recovery willtake much longer than any previous recessions.1 At its peak,unemployment reached 10.1% with a decline of 8.8 million jobs from itspre-recession peak.2 The recession left nearly no sector unscathed. TheBureau of Labor Statistics shows construction and manufacturing taking adouble-digit decline in jobs, while only education and health services showa modest job increase of 3.3%. Government and utilities remained steady.(See Figures 1 and 2.)Allowing markets to self-correct would prolong the recovery process.Furthermore, companies continue to look at other location options abroad.Thus, strategies to regain the 8.8 million jobs lost are not only necessaryfor short-term growth, but for long-term sustainability as well.While strong economies have the luxury of concentrating on long-term jobgrowth and labor supply strategies, the Great Recession requiresgovernment practitioners to focus more narrowly on stimulating labordemand and employing workers now. Practitioners must balance long andshort-term goals in job creation, realizing that few policies can serve both.3
Figure 1. The Great Recession in Comparative Perspective.Source: Adapted from Sylvia Allegretto, The Severe Crisis of Jobs in the United States andCalifornia (Center on Wage and Employment Dynamics Policy Brief., 2010).Figure 2. Total Non-Farm Employment, 2000-2010.Source: Christopher J. Goodman & Steven M. Mance, Employment Loss and the 2007-09Recession: An Overview, Monthly Labor Review, April 2011.4
What is Meant by ‘Job Creation’?Job creation is difficult to evaluate because it is difficult to measure. Thisreport attempts to survey a wide range of job creation strategies thatpolicymakers can implement during times of economic recession. Theproverbial golden egg of job creation policies is the “net new job”—the jobthat is created without displacing any other economic activity. While it iseasy enough to measure whether a new job has been created at themacroeconomic scale by looking at aggregate data from the Bureau ofLabor Statistics, it is very difficult to determine if (1) the jobs created didn’tmerely displace jobs in other locations or sectors, and (2) if the jobs werecreated because of a specific policy. Throughout this report, this dilemmaemerges frequently; the theoretical mechanism for how a policy createsjobs may be well understood, but data showing that it actually did createnet new jobs is ambivalent at best or, more commonly, simply nonexistent.This report does not attempt to determine which job creation strategieswork “best;” rather, it is a broad survey mapping the landscape of jobcreation strategies. We organize the strategies in this paper around fourbroad themes. The first theme, “Macroeconomic Strategies” looks atmacroeconomic strategies that promote net new job creation. Thesestrategies may help create jobs at the aggregate level, but we believe theyfall short on a number of levels. Principally, macroeconomic job creationdoes not address how job growth happens unequally across geographiclocations, industry sectors, and worker populations. To address this, theother three themes in this report describe more focused job creationstrategies. The second theme discusses place-based job creationstrategies, such as business attraction and enterprise zones. The thirdtheme looks at business-based strategies that attempt to create jobs incertain business types or industries, such as green jobs and smallbusinesses. The final theme describes worker-based strategies thataddress job quality and targeting jobs for disadvantaged workers. Thesestrategies include local hire policies and high road agreements. Many ofthe strategies we discuss serve more than one of these themes; taken asa whole, they all can contribute to stabilizing the economy and adding netnew jobs, if implemented appropriately.This policy report performs a broad literature review to gather differentstrategies and present the advantages and disadvantages of eachstrategy. While no strategy serves as a panacea for job creation, we hopethis report serves as a sort of road map for practitioners to help guide theirway through the vast array of strategies available.5
FEDERAL- AND STATE-LEVEL STRATEGIESMacroeconomic and other high-level job creation strategies in the UnitedStates usually entail action by the federal and state government. Mostfederal policies are broad policies and involve disbursing money to thestate and local level for certain job creating activities. Similarly, states willsometimes act as a disburser of funds to the city and county level.Federal job creation strategies have the advantage that only the federalgovernment can print money and operate under a budget deficit—givingthe federal government more room to maneuver fiscally, while states areconstrained by their budgets. Much of this federal money trickles down tostate and local levels through grants, where most implementation-relateddetails are handled. For example, the bulk of the American Recovery andReinvestment Act (ARRA) money went to aid states with theirunemployment insurance programs, but it was up to each state how tostructure their respective programs.3There are four primary ways in which the federal government caninfluence job creation: interest rate reductions, government hiring andpurchases, transfer payments, and tax credits.4 The effectiveness ofstrategies depends on the economic environment of the nation, and thusnot every strategy applies for every economic situation. The following arejob creation strategies commonly applied at the state and/or federal levels:Interest Rate ReductionsThe federal government lowers interest rates in the short-term economythrough open market operations (OMO), that is, the sale and purchase ofsecurities such as bonds. Purchases of securities through OMO lower theFederal Funds Rate (FFR) and in turn will lower the real interest rate. Suchreductions in interest rates alter borrowing costs and make privateinvestments cheaper, thus incentivizing companies to invest in capital, hiremore workers, and grow the economy. They also boost consumptionfurther because of the income gains that result from the higher level ofeconomic output.ADVANTAGESJob Creation through Markets. As consumption and businessinvestment spending is sensitive to interest rates, lowering interestrates will allow for greater spending and investments where the marketdemands it. It allows investments to flow to the most productive sectors6
instead of letting government choose “winning industries” throughsubsidies.Fast Implementation. Interest rate reductions are also easy to implementsince they do not involve any legislative action.DISADVANTAGESMarkets Unresponsive. If the goals of lowering the FFR are to encourageprivate investment and increase consumer confidence, then the 2007recession shows that lowering the FFR may not always achieve thosegoals. During the Great Recession, despite lowering the FFR to zero,banks continued to accumulate reserves without lending to the privatesector.Capital Investments Over Jobs. Lowering the interest rates incentivizescompanies to invest more. However, that could take the form of capitalinvestments, not necessarily new direct jobs.Limited Effectiveness. Once the Federal Reserve lowers their rates tozero, they have exhausted their primary option to affect job creationand stimulate the economy.Increased Inflation. Lowering the FFR will have the additional effect ofincreasing inflation by increasing the money supply in the economy.Government Hiring and PurchasesGovernment hiring and purchases create jobs either through direct hiringof government employees or indirectly through government purchasingactivities. Because of the federal government’s ability to operate at adeficit, continued government employment can have a significant multipliereffect. The effect varies depending on the exact type of spending.5Continued employment can also reduce unemployment as fewer peopleneed to be reabsorbed into the labor market. As economist Ken Jacobssays, “The best way to create jobs is to not kill existing jobs.”6The additional government spending through ARRA allowed for more thanjust continued employment to stimulate further job creation. This sectionwill speak to government hiring and purchases through the lens ofinfrastructure.Infrastructure InvestmentsWhile there is much debate about whether government spending “crowdsout” private spending, infrastructure is an area where crowding out shouldbe of little concern.7 Crowding out refers to the reduction of privateinvestment due to government spending. Investing in infrastructure, by7
building roads and water systems and the like, creates jobs in the shortterm, while investing in infrastructure such as public transit systems andelectrical grids will employ workers for multiple periods and can create jobsin the long-term. There can also be a cost advantage to buildinginfrastructure during a recession, as construction bids tend to be lowerthan normal. Thus, infrastructure is a valuable countercyclical tool increating jobs during a recession.8ADVANTAGESShort-Term Job Creation. Many projects are at a standstill due to thelack of funding. For “shovel-ready” projects that have been approvedbut previously lacked funding, the recession creates opportunities forimplementation, thereby creating jobs immediately.Long-Term Job Creation. Infrastructure investments ease the cost ofdoing business and increase indirect jobs in the long run through theprivate sector.9DISADVANTAGESFew Domestic Suppliers. The United States is currently not set up tomake most infrastructure purchases domestically which means that theU.S. economy will not reap the full job creation benefits frominfrastructure investments.10 For example, most rail supplymanufacturers are European, benefitting European workers when theU.S. invests in infrastructure. To stimulate more job creation,investment in infrastructure must also accompany policies to build thedomestic supplier base for infrastructure, as these will bemanufacturing jobs for middle and low-skill workers.Shovel-ready? As opposed to infrastructure projects from the New Dealera, current infrastructure projects are less “shovel-ready.” Today’sprojects require more sophisticated training and have much moreenvironmental regulation than during the New Deal. Thus, there are alimited number of projects that can be mobilized in the short-term tocreate jobs.118
Infrastructure Banks: Targeted FinancingDespite that infrastructure investments are in high demand and can create jobs, thecurrent political structure impedes these investments. An infrastructure bank (IB) is atargeted mechanism for financing infrastructure that balances rate-of-return goalswith multiple policy goals. The ability for an IB to incorporate multiple policy goals intheir rate of return calculation can encourage projects that promote job creation,equitable job opportunities, green infrastructure investment, and necessaryinfrastructure maintenance. Using an IB also reduces congressional pet projects andoffers a more holistic approach to infrastructure needs and U.S. policy goals.12Transfer PaymentsTransfer payments create jobs indirectly through the spending patterns ofthose receiving the transfer payment, creating a multiplier effect. Two keyprograms that stimulate indirect job creation are short-time compensationprograms and worker subsidies.Short -Time Compensation ProgramsUnemployment insurance is one of the key mechanisms states use as asafety net for the unemployed, but not as a job creating mechanism.However, many states also supplement their unemployment insurancewith short-time compensation (STC) programs. STC programs are morecommon in Europe, but are now appearing in many states such as Floridaand Vermont (17 states in 1997).13 STC works by allowing employers tocut their workforce hours during short-term hardships and then payingtheir employees unemployment insurance for cut hours. For example, if acompany reduced employee work hours from 40 hours per week to 32hours per week, the STC program would pay for the 8 lost hours. Whilethis does not create any net new jobs, it can decrease the loss of jobs in arecessionary period.ADVANTAGESDecreased Job Friction. By helping employers keep their workforceduring a downturn, STC programs decrease the number of net jobslost. Permanent reduction in the workforce accompanies friction inrefilling those positions long after the economy starts to rebound.14Cost effective. Reports also show that these programs do not affect thesolvency of unemployment funds. Since the state would have to payunemployment benefits to workers who have been laid off, using thesefunds to keep them remain partially employed would not have a largeeffect on solvency.159
DISADVANTAGESSmall Uptake. Many reports show that STC is not well advertised andcompanies do not know about the program.16Abuse of Short-Term Program. Depending on how the state STCprogram is set up, some companies over-use the program, defeatingthe purpose of this supposedly short-term measure.Worker SubsidiesWorker subsidies are a pro-cyclical job creation strategy where monetaryincentives given to workers above their base wage stimulate the supplyside of the labor market. While this strategy may not be as effective inshort-term job creation, worker subsidies can potentially lower long-termunemployment rates as jobs created become more efficiently filled. Themost prominent federal example of workers’ subsidy is the Earned IncomeTax Credit (EITC), which incentivizes low-income workers to enter thelabor market by subsidizing their income. Enacted in 1975, EITC firstbecame available as a way to encourage low-income women to enter theworkforce. While the original EITC was small, the credit has growntremendously to up to 5,600 for families with three children.Many states and cities also have a local version of EITC.17 While the dollaramounts are not substantial, the primary motivation is to encourage localworkers to claim the substantial federal EITC.ADVANTAGESLong-term Targeted Growth. According to economist David Neumark,workers’ subsidies are better long-term strategies compared to hiringcredits. EITC significantly increased employment, especially amongsingle mothers, by 18-23% after the federal expansion, and decreasedpoverty.18 This targeted increase in employment is important duringrecessionary periods in order to partially mitigate the devastatingimpact of increased unemployment on high-poverty neighborhoods.Avoids Employment Stigma. Because EITC is claimed through the IRS,it avoids any stigma between employers and employees. Stigma mayoccur for the employee who may not want to tell a potential employerthat they are part of a special population. Similarly, employers areunwilling to ask potential employees about race or income status infear of discriminatory lawsuits.19Distributional Equity. Targeted workers’ subsidies take into accountdistributional effects by providing additional income to low-incomeworkers.10
DISADVANTAGESNot Specific to Recession. While workers’ subsidies work well as a longterm strategy, they are not specific to business cycles and do not workwell as countercyclical job creation policies.Federal Hiring CreditsHiring credits give employers a tax break for net new hires. The goal is tostimulate demand for workers and get firms on the margin to hire. Prior tothe most recent recession, the last large federal hiring credit was the 1977Wage Subsidy Program. Data collection in 1977 made it difficult toevaluate the program’s overall effect on job creation.20States have also been offering their own versions of targeted hiring creditsthrough the Worker Opportunity Tax Credit and, more recently, theTemporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) emergency funds,which states have successfully used to hire significant numbers of lowincome workers.21 Due to varying program design, efficacy also varies.However, effectiveness tends to increase when hiring credit programspartner with other welfare agencies and programs.It is essential that hiring credits become effective immediately during arecession, as this is a countercyclical measure.ADVANTAGESMarginally Increases Employment. The 1977 study suggests thatcompanies that knew about and participated in the programexperienced 3% gains in direct employment. Because data existedonly for companies that knew about the program, this mayoverestimate actual gains.Effective Short Term. The immediate decrease in labor costs willincrease short-term hiring.Easy to Administer. They are cost-effective and easy to administer, aslong as they focus on the recently unemployed. The current federalhiring credit is claimed with IRS forms.DISADVANTAGESLack of Awareness. In order for any credit or subsidy to affect behavior,the employer must know about the program. Even if the programsubstantially affected behavior for firms that knew of the program, the1977 Wage Subsidy Program shows that most companies wereunaware of it. Having companies collect the subsidy after the hiringdecision does not affect behavior.22 Furthermore, there is a disconnect11
in most companies between those who collect the tax credit(finance/accounting) and those who make hiring decisions.Employment Stigma. Hiring credits are also not as effective when usedfor targeted populations, as this creates a stigma for the employeesand employers. Targeting may be better addressed through workersubsidies.Mismatched Timing. Finally, because of the length of time it takes topass legislation and implement it, the effects may be pro-cyclicalinstead of countercyclical. Some suggestions to improve this includepassing proactive legislation that only becomes effective during arecession.San Francisco’s Jobs Now! ProgramIn June 2009, San Francisco received federal stimulus money to run Jobs Now!, aprogram that provided a hiring credit for private employers to hire from a targetedunemployed or under-employed population. By working closely with Cal-Works andthe San Francisco Human Service agency for employee referrals, Jobs Now! wasable to avoid much of the stigma and legal challenges employees and employersfaced during the hiring process, thus smoothing the path to higher short-term jobcreation.23Additional Resources:Foss, Murray, “How Rigid are Construction Costs During a Recession?,” Journal ofBusiness, Chicago Press. 1961Jacobs, Ken, Lucia, Laurel and Lester. T. William. 2010. Regional Economic Impactsof Proposed Health and Human Services Cuts. CLRE Policy Brief.Levine, Linda. 2010. Job Growth during the Recovery. Congressional ResearchService. http://assets.opencrs.com/rpts/R41434 20100930.pdfLevitis, Jason. Koulis, J. “State Earned Income Tax Credits: 2008 LegislativeUpdate”. Access April 15, 2011. http://www.cbpp.org/cms/?fa view&id 462Masi, Paul. Calworks Adult Experiences with Jobs Now!. Memo for San FranciscoHuman Service Agency. August 3, 2010.Needels, K., Nicholson, W., Kerachsky, S., Walsh, S., London, R., McCanne, D.,1997. “Evaluation of the Short-Time Compensation Programs. Final report”. U.S.Department of Labor, Mathematica Policy Research and Berkeley PlanningAssociates.12
Neumark, David. Policies to Encourage Job Creation: Hiring Credits vs WorkersSubsidies. National Bureau of Economic Research working paper 16866. March2011.Neumark, David. Interview. “How Can California Spur Job Creation”. IRLE JobCreation and Local Communities Speaker Series. Feb 23, 2011Pollin, Robert and Baker, Dean. 2010. Reindustrializing America: A Proposal forReviving U.S. Manufacturing and Creating Millions of Good Jobs. New Labor Forum19,2: 16-34.13
PLACE-BASED STRATEGIESBUSINESS ATTRACTION & RETENTIONLocal governments attempt to create a friendly business climate throughincentives because some supply-side theories assert firms will locatewhere they can minimize costs, thus increasing local employment.Business attraction strategies represent the first wave of economicdevelopment practice, where localities attempted to target firms with offersof cash or near-cash assistance, in the form of subsidized loans and taxexemptions, to encourage their relocation.24 Business retention strategiesare part of second-wave economic development that focuses on gettinginformation on the needs of local businesses, and then encouraginggovernment actions to better meet those needs and increase localbenefits. Retention programs range from business visitation and surveyingprograms, to planned manufacturing regions and business clusters.Business incentives can be controversial, as they are vulnerable tocriticism by liberals as “corporate welfare” for business and byconservatives as government interference in the private sector.25 In theory,providing benefits and assistance to businesses can result in increasedlocal jobs when these new and expanding businesses add to the localeconomy’s export base or substitute for imports. Growth also comes frommultiplier effects generated by expanding businesses’ local suppliers, andincreased worker income leading to growth in local retailers and services.Job chain theory builds on the idea that business growth generates jobsby positing that, as an industry expands, new staff positions are createdthroughout the jobs ladder, allowing mid-and low-level workers to move upthe chain and eventually opening up opportunities that reach low-skilled,unemployed people.26In the long run, incentives and assistance for businesses should increaselabor demand by providing more jobs and/or improving jobs quality; but inthe short run, there may be little effect on new jobs and even a decreaseas demand shifts toward higher-productivity jobs.27 This leads expertssuch as Timothy Bartik to argue for a focus not on job growth as the goalbut rather higher earnings per capita. In any case, though businessincentives are still widely used, localities may be gradually shifting awayfrom these strategies.28Examples of widely used business attraction and retention strategiesinclude the following:14
Provision of Local Economic DataLocal economic development organizations often attempt to provide goodinformation and assistance with permits and zoning regulations forbusiness prospects. This may affect large companies that are seeking toget a plant into operation quickly, as well as small businesses that needhelp navigating red tape at city hall. Providing reliable information on sites,and helping overcome problems with permits and regulations can helpcreate jobs by attracting business prospects and saving start-up time.ADVANTAGESInformation Access. This allows for job creation by giving businessesmore information about comparative advantages of a city that theymay otherwise be unaware of.Cost-Effective. Providing basic information to businesses requiresrelatively modest expenditures of economic development staff.Transparency and Accountability. Streamlining and providingtransparency for information access on economic developmentactivities helps increase public accountability.DISADVANTAGESLack of Impact and Measurability. The effect on actual businesslocation decisions and, by extension, potential job creation is likely tobe small and not well-measured.MarketingMarketing efforts play a significant role in job creation strategies byemphasizing a locality’s comparative advantages over its competitors.Surveys of economic development directors have found that they definesales activities as the most frequent and important activity their officeengages in.29 Marketing also has spurred a large site consulting industry,which more large corporations are using to make location decisions.Localities’ marketing activities include preparing promotional materials,developing websites featuring the community’s advantages forbusinesses, networking with business prospects, and advertising.ADVANTAGESImproved Efficiency. All this marketing activity results in dissemination ofmore information about business location issues, which arguablyincreases efficiency in the allocation of resources.15
Cost-Effective. Though time-consuming, sales activities may be morecost-effective since they focus on relationship building to attractbusinesses and not financial subsidies.DISADVANTAGESZero-Sum. At the national level, localities’ rival marketing activities canfeed into local intergovernmental competition and amount to a zerosum game, where net new job creation may occur in the locality butnot necessarily in the state or the nation.Information Asymmetry. Marketing efforts fuel the site consultingindustry, which may lead to information asymmetries and potentialmarket inefficiency. Also, trade magazines advise firms on strategies toplay localities against each other and publicize winners and losersamong localities—all feeding into incentive competition.30Creation or Retention of Industrial ZonesCities have tried to maintain and grow new business with industrialretention programs that incentivize manufacturing firms to remain (ratherthan flee to the suburbs) by making the inner city
Green Jobs Strategies 38 Worker-Based Strategies 44 Local Hire and First Source Hiring Ordinances 46 Wage Increases—Minimum, Living, and Prevailing Wages 48 . Government hiring and purchases create jobs either through direct hiring . 11. creation. 2011. . creation, STRATEGIES .
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In this overview, we briefly define the concepts of "wealth" and "wealth creation", explain why a focus on wealth creation is important, discuss recent efforts to promote rural wealth creation, discuss what is known from past research about rural wealth creation, and introduce a conceptual framework for rural wealth creation and the theme
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