October 2021 TECHNOLOGYASSESSMENT Quantum Computing And Communications
United States Government Accountability OfficeReport to Congressional AddresseesOctober 2021TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENTQuantum Computingand CommunicationsStatus and ProspectsAccessible VersionGAO-22-104422
The cover image displays a stylized representation of quantum computing and communications technology elements. Asatellite network (left) could enable quantum communications, allowing users to exchange quantum information overlong distances. The Bloch sphere (right) is a useful tool to visualize all possible states of a single qubit, the quantumequivalent of the classical bit, and the fundamental component of quantum computing and communications hardware.While a classical bit is either a 0 or a 1, a qubit can be any combination of 0 and 1 that is represented mathematically bya point on the sphere.Image source: GAO and Kundra/stock.adobe.com. GAO-22-104422
DRAFTGAO HighlightsHighlights of GAO-22-104422, a report tocongressional addresseesOctober 2021TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENTQuantum Computing andCommunicationsStatus and ProspectsWhy GAO did this studyWhat GAO foundQuantum information technologiescould dramatically increasecapabilities beyond what is possiblewith classical technologies. Futurequantum computers could have highvalue applications in security,cryptography, drug development, andenergy. Future quantumcommunications could allow forsecure communications by makinginformation challenging to interceptwithout the eavesdropper beingdetected.Quantum information technologies aim to use the properties of nature at atomic scalesto accomplish tasks that are not achievable with existing technologies. Thesetechnologies rely on qubits, the quantum equivalent of classical computer bits. Scientistsare creating qubits from particles, such as atoms or particles of light, or objects thatmimic them, such as superconducting circuits. Unlike classical bits, qubits can beintrinsically linked to each other and can be any combination of 0 and 1 simultaneously.These capabilities enable two potentially transformational applications—quantumcomputing and communications. However, quantum information cannot be copied, isfragile, and can be irreversibly lost, resulting in errors that are challenging to correct.Examples of quantum computing hardwareGAO conducted a technologyassessment on (1) the availability ofquantum computing andcommunications technologies andhow they work, (2) potential futureapplications of such technologies andbenefits and drawbacks from theirdevelopment and use, and (3) factorsthat could affect technologydevelopment and policy optionsavailable to help address thosefactors, enhance benefits, or mitigatedrawbacks.To address these objectives, GAOreviewed key reports and scientificliterature; interviewed government,industry, academic representatives,and potential end users; andconvened a meeting of experts incollaboration with the NationalAcademies of Sciences, Engineering,and Medicine. GAO is identifyingpolicy options in this report.Some quantum computing and communications technologies are available for limiteduses, but will likely require extensive development before providing significantcommercial value. For example, some small error-prone quantum computers areavailable for limited applications, and a quantum communications technology known asquantum key distribution can be purchased. According to agency officials andstakeholders, additional quantum technology development may take at least a decadeand cost billions, but such estimates are highly uncertain. Quantum computing andcommunications technologies will likely develop together because of some sharedphysics principles, laboratory techniques, and common hardware.Quantum computers may have applications in many sectors, but it is not clear wherethey will have the greatest impact. Quantum communications technologies may haveuses for secure communications, quantum networking, and a future quantum internet.Some applications—such as distributed quantum computing, which connects multiplequantum computers together to solve a problem—require both quantum computingand communications technologies. Potential drawbacks of quantum technology includecost, complexity, energy consumption, and the possibility of malicious use.View GAO-22-104422. For more information,contact Karen L. Howard at (202) 512-6888or howardk@gao.gov.United States Government Accountability Office
GAO identified four factors that affect quantum technology development and use: (1) collaboration, (2) workforce size and skill, (3)investment, and (4) the supply chain. The table below describes options that policymakers—legislative bodies, government agencies,standards-setting organizations, industry, and other groups—could consider to help address these factors, enhance benefits, ormitigate drawbacks of quantum technology development and use.Policy Options to Help Address Factors that Affect Quantum Technology Development and Use, or to Enhance Benefits orMitigate DrawbacksPolicy options and potentialOpportunitiesConsiderationsimplementation approaches· Collaboration among disciplines could enable· Intellectual property concerns could makeCollaboration (report p. 37)Policymakers could encourage furthercollaboration in developing quantumtechnologies, such as collaborationamong:· Scientific disciplines· Sectors· CountriesWorkforce (report p. 39)Policymakers could consider ways toexpand the quantum technologyworkforce by, for example:· Leveraging existing programs andcreating new ones· Promoting job training· Facilitating appropriate hiring of aninternational workforce who aredeemed not to pose a nationalsecurity riskInvestment (report p. 41)Policymakers could consider ways toincentivize or support investment inquantum technology development,such as:· Investments targeted towardspecific results· Continued investment in quantumtechnology research centers· Grand challenges to spur solutionsfrom the publicSupply Chain (report p. 43)Policymakers could encourage thedevelopment of a robust, securesupply chain for quantumtechnologies by, for example:· Enhancing efforts to identify gapsin the global supply chain· Expanding fabrication capabilitiesfor items with an at-risk supplychainSource: GAO. GAO-22-104422technology breakthroughs.· Collaboration could help accelerate research anddevelopment, as well as facilitate technologytransfer from laboratories to the private sector,federal agencies, and others.· International collaboration could bring mutualbenefits to the U.S. and other countries byaccelerating scientific discovery and promotingeconomic growth.· Educational programs could provide students andpersonnel with the qualifications and skills needed towork in quantum technologies across the privatesector, public sector, and academia.· Training personnel from different disciplines inquantum technologies could enhance the supply ofquantum talent.· International hiring could allow U.S. quantumemployers to attract and retain top talent from othercountries.quantum technology leaders reluctant tocollaborate.· Institutional differences could makecollaboration difficult.· Export controls may complicateinternational collaboration, but are alsoneeded to manage national security risks.· More targeted investments could help advancequantum technologies. These may includeinvestments in improving access to quantumcomputers and focusing on real-world applications.· Quantum technologies testbed facility investmentscould support technology adoption, since testbedsallow researchers to explore new technologies andtest the functionality of devices.· Grand challenges have shown success in providingnew capabilities and could be leveraged for quantumtechnologies.· It may be difficult to fund projects withlonger-term project timeframes.· A lack of standards or, conversely,developing standards too early, couldaffect quantum technology investments.Without standards, businesses andconsumers may not be confident thatproducts will work as expected.· Developing standards too early may deterthe growth of alternative technologypathways.· A robust supply chain could help accelerate progressand mitigate quantum technology development risksby expanding access to necessary components andmaterials or providing improved economies of scale.· Quantum material fabrication capabilitiesimprovements could ensure a reliable supply ofmaterials to support quantum technologydevelopment.· Facilities dedicated to producing quantum materialscould help support scalable manufacturing ofcomponent parts needed for quantum technologydevelopment.· The current quantum supply chain isglobal, which poses risks. For example, it isdifficult to obtain a completeunderstanding of a component’s potentialvulnerabilities.· Some critical components, such as rareearths, are mined primarily outside of theU.S., which may pose risks to the supplychain that are difficult to mitigate.· Quantum manufacturing facilities take along time to develop and can be costly.· Efforts to increase the quantumtechnology labor force may affect thesupply of expertise in other technologyfields with high demand.· It may be difficult to adequately developworkforce plans to accommodatequantum technology needs.· International hiring could be challengingbecause of visa requirements and exportcontrols, both in place for nationalsecurity reasons.
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Table of ContentsGAO Highlights . 3Why GAO did this study .3What GAO found .3Introduction . 11 Background . 41.1 Introduction to quantum computing and communications technologies .41.2 History of quantum technologies .61.3 Applicable laws on quantum information science .92 Some Quantum Technologies Could Take at Least a Decade to Mature . 112.1 Some quantum technologies are available for limited uses .112.2 Quantum technology costs and time to maturity .192.3 Quantum computing and communications technologies may develop together .233 Quantum Technologies Could Enable a Range of Applications . 243.1 Quantum computers may eventually solve some intractable problems .243.2 Quantum communications could enhance security, sensing, and computing.293.3 Some applications will require both computing and communications technologies .313.4 Quantum technology drawbacks.324 Factors Affecting Quantum Technologies and Policy Options to Address Them . 334.1 Several factors affect the development and use of quantum technologies .334.2 Several policy options may help address factors affecting the development and use ofquantum technologies.375 Agency and Expert Comments . 45Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology . 47Appendix II: Expert Meeting Participation. 49Appendix III: Selected Definitions . 51Appendix IV: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments. 52Related GAO Products . 53Quantum Computing and Communications GAO-21-104422 i
AbbreviationsDODDepartment of DefenseDOEDepartment of EnergyEARExport Administration RegulationsITARInternational Traffic in Arms RegulationsNational AcademiesNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and MedicineNASANational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationNDAANational Defense Authorization ActNISTNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyNSFNational Science FoundationQuantum Computing and Communications GAO-21-104422 ii
441 G St. N.W.Washington, DC 20548IntroductionOctober 19, 2021Congressional AddresseesQuantum information technologies build on the study of quantum physics to collect, generate,and process information in ways not achievable with existing technologies.1 One suchtechnology, a quantum computer, could address some problems that are intractable on anypossible classical computers, including the most powerful supercomputers.2 Future quantumcomputing could break cryptographic schemes by factoring the large numbers used inencryption, as well as simulate chemical reactions that are critical to drug development, energystorage, and other high-value commercial applications.A related category of technology, quantum communications, could allow for more securecommunications by making information challenging to intercept without the eavesdropperbeing detected.3 Quantum communications networking could revolutionize aspects ofinformation transmission, and some people consider building and scaling such networks to beamong the most important technological frontiers of the 21st century.4The National Science and Technology Council has reported that the United States could improveits industrial base, create jobs, and realize economic and national security benefits throughquantum technology development.5 In 2018, Congress passed the National Quantum InitiativeAct, providing for a coordinated federal program to accelerate quantum research anddevelopment for the economic and national security of the United States.6 The 2019 NationalDefense Authorization Act (NDAA) authorized the creation of a defense quantum information1Quantum technologies broadly include quantum computing, quantum communications, and quantum sensing. For this technologyassessment, we focus on quantum computing and communications technologies.2National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Quantum Computing: Progress and Prospects (Washington, D.C.:National Academies Press. 2019). Computers that process information according to the laws of classical physics are “classicalcomputers.” Quantum computers rely on the laws of quantum physics to process information.3The Department of Defense (DOD) considers quantum communications to be a subset of quantum networks and defines aquantum network as a set of interconnected devices or nodes that function together to achieve overarching goals.4K. Kleese van Dam, From Long-distance Entanglement to Building a Nationwide Quantum Internet: Report of the DOE QuantumInternet Blueprint Workshop, BNL-216179-2020-FORE (Department of Energy, Office of Science, July 2020).5National Science and Technology Council, Subcommittee on Quantum Information Science, National Strategic Overview forQuantum Information Science (September 2018).6National Quantum Initiative Act, Pub. L. No. 115-368, 132 Stat. 5092-5103 (2018).Quantum Computing and Communications GAO-21-104422 1
science and technology research and development program.7 Companies and other countrieshave also prioritized quantum technology development.We prepared this report under the authority of the Comptroller General to assist Congress withits oversight responsibilities, in light of the broad congressional interest in and crosscuttingnature of quantum technologies. We examined (1) the availability of quantum computing andcommunications technologies and how they work, (2) potential future applications of suchtechnologies and the potential benefits and drawbacks from their development and use, and (3)factors that could affect the development and use of such technologies and the policy optionsavailable to help address those factors, enhance benefits, or mitigate drawbacks. See Appendix Ifor a detailed description of our objectives, scope, and methodology.To conduct our work, across all three objectives, we:·Interviewed officials from the Department of Defense (DOD), Department of Energy (DOE),Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity, National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), NationalScience Foundation (NSF), and Office of Science and Technology Policy, and a nongeneralizable sample of stakeholders from academia, industry, and trade groups. Ourinterviews focused on quantum computing and communications activities, technology uses,potential future applications, and the potential benefits, drawbacks, and considerationsrelated to developing such technologies. We selected stakeholders based on expertise inquantum computing or communications technologies, understanding of potentialapplications, or understanding of the effects of those applications.·Interviewed potential end users about plans to use a quantum computer and thetechnology’s benefits and drawbacks. We selected a non-generalizable sample of sixpotential end users from multiple sectors including the pharmaceutical and finance sectors,based on continued company interest in quantum computing, press releases or publishedarticles, collaborations with quantum computing companies, and being a potential end usernot directly involved with the creation of a quantum computer.·Reviewed agency documents and documents suggested during interviews or identified byGAO to provide insights into the maturity of quantum computing and communicationstechnologies, their applications, the potential benefits and drawbacks of their usage, andpolicy options. A GAO librarian also conducted a legal literature search in topic areas such asquantum computing and communications encryption, privacy, and standards to helpprovide insights into the legal landscape that may affect the development and use ofquantum computing and communications technologies.7John S. McCain National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) for Fiscal Year 2019, Pub. L. No. 115-232, div. A, tit. II, § 234, 132 Stat.1636, 1692-93 (2018), as amended by Pub. L. No. 116-92, div. A, tit. II, § 220, 133 Stat. 1198, 1260-61 (2019) and Pub. L. No. 116283, div. A, tit. II, § 214, 134 Stat. 3388, 3458 (2021).Quantum Computing and Communications GAO-21-104422 2
·Convened a one-and-a-half day meeting of experts from academia, government, andindustry. We invited these experts with assistance from the National Academies of Sciences,Engineering, and Medicine (National Academies)—based on expertise in quantumcomputing, quantum communications, quantum applications, and the economic, social, orlegal implications of quantum computing and communications technologies—to obtain arange of perspectives on the maturity of quantum computing and communicationstechnologies, challenges, factors that could affect technology development and use,applications, and policy options. See Appendix II for a list of experts who participated in ourmeeting.For objective 3, in addition to the steps above, we identified policy ideas from the aboveevidence. These policy ideas were developed into policy options by combining similar ideas andremoving those that were duplicative, could be grouped into a higher-level policy option, wereexamples of how to implement a policy option, or did not fit into our scope.We conducted our work from July 2020 to October 2021 in accordance with all sections ofGAO’s Quality Assurance Framework that are relevant to technology assessments. Theframework requires that we plan and perform the engagement to obtain sufficient andappropriate evidence to meet our stated objectives and to discuss any limitations to our work.We believe that the information and data obtained, and the analysis conducted, provide areasonable basis for any findings and conclusions in this product.Quantum Computing and Communications GAO-21-104422 3
1 Background1.1 Introduction to quantumcomputing and communicationstechnologiesTwo characteristics distinguish quantuminformation technologies from classicalinformation technologies.8 First, they rely onquantum physics: the sometimescounterintuitive properties of nature atatomic scales.9 Second, measuring orobserving a quantum system fundamentallychanges quantum information. These twocharacteristics cause quantum technologiesto process information in a way that isfundamentally different from classicaltechnologies.10 The difference in processinginformation begins at the smallest level—aquantum bit, or qubit, which is analogous to abit in a classical computer.11 Quantumcomputers can, for some problems,dramatically increase processing speedcompared to a classical computer. Quantumcommunications technologies can transmitqubits while maintaining their quantumproperties, which is needed to achieve certainsecurity protocols and connect quantumdevices.states simultaneously. Whereas a classical bitcan be in a state of 0 or 1, a qubit can be insome combination 0 and 1 at the same time;upon measurement, a qubit will resolve toone of the states composing thesuperposition, destroying the superposition(see app. III for selected definitions).Quantum technologies also useentanglement, where qubits are intrinsicallylinked so that when one qubit is acted upon—such as through measurement—it can revealinformation about the other qubits,something that does not occur with classicalbits.12 Superposition and entanglement,among other things, give rise to thepotentially transformational applications ofquantum computing and communication.Scientists are working to create quantumtechnologies by creating physical qubits froma variety of systems including:·Particles such as atoms, ions, andparticles of light, known as photons.·Objects that mimic particles, such assuperconducting circuits (i.e., electroniccircuits without electrical resistance),quantum dots (small semiconductingcrystals that resemble transistors), anddefects in a crystal (e.g., a nitrogen atomwithin a diamond’s carbon lattice, knownas a color center).One way quantum technologies process andsend information differently is by usingsuperposition–a property of quantum physicsthat allows qubits to be in a combination of8Quantum sensing is another quantum technology, but it isoutside the scope of this technology assessment.9Quantum physics explains the behavior and interactions ofsmall particles such as atoms, molecules, electrons, andphotons.10Classical information technologies follow the laws of classicalphysics and consist of methods for information transfer andinformation processing, including supercomputers, theinternet, and personal computing devices.11A bit, or binary digit, is the most elementary unit of classicalcomputing and communications information; it is representedby either a 0 or a 1.12Quantum entanglement does not allow for informationtransfer at speeds faster than the speed of light.Quantum Computing and Communications GAO-21-104422 4
To create quantum technologies from thesequbits, scientists manipulate the quantumproperties of each qubit and entanglemultiple qubits with one another. Thesemanipulations are accomplished with lasers,microwaves, electric or magnetic fields, andother ways to control qubits. However,quantum technologies have not yet beenperfected. Quantum information is fragile andcan be irreversibly lost through interactionswith the environment, in a process calleddecoherence. The quantum coherence time ishow long a qubit maintains a superposition orentangled state before decoherence, a factorthat limits how long a qubit can be used foran operation. Classical information can alsobe lost to the environment, but classicalcomputers employ automatic error detectionor correction techniques to mitigate theeffects of information loss by, for example,copying the state of the system so thatsubsequent errors can be detected andcorrected. However, quantum informationcannot be copied, and measurement disruptsthe information, preventing theimplementation of classical error correctiontechniques. Quantum error correctiontechniques have been proposed anddemonstrated but are challenging toimplement. Quantum error correctionprocedures use many error-prone physicalqubits working together and with classicalprocessing to create a system that mimics arobust and stable single qubit—known as alogical qubit.Quantum information technologies may addnew functionalities to supplement andenhance classical information technologiesbut will use different hardware to do so (seefig. 1).Quantum Computing and Communications GAO-21-104422 5
1.2 History of quantum technologiesAfter the field of quantum physics wasdeveloped in the early 20th century,researchers began to explore its applicationto quantum technologies. In 1959, researcherRichard Feynman suggested it may be13Feynman delivered a talk on manipulating and controllingthings on a small scale, later published in the February 1960issue of Engineering and Science Magazine. R.P. Feynman,possible to manipulate matter at an atomicscale, implying certain types of calculationscould be completed more efficiently onquantum systems than on classicaltechnologies.13 At the first conference on thephysics of computation, in 1981, researchersobserved that it may be impossible to“There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom: An invitation to enter anew field of physics,” Engineering and Science, (Feb. 1960) pp.22-36.Quantum Computing and Communications GAO-21-104422 6
efficiently simulate a quantum system’sevolution on a classical computer, andproposed a basic model for quantumcomputing. Meanwhile, researchers began tobuild off classical information theory todevelop an understanding of quantuminformation, such as the understanding thatquantum information could not be copied theway classical information could be.The late 20th century marked other advancesin quantum theory, including:··In 1984, researchers described a quantumkey distribution scheme in which aneavesdropper would have a highprobability of being detected whenattempting to spy on an encrypted keyexchange that uses qubits to transmitinformation. This scheme, commonlycalled BB84, is regarded as the firstquantum cryptography protocol.14 In1991, researchers expanded on the BB84protocol and introduced a differentapproach to quantum key distributionthat incorporates entanglement.15The first experimental achievements inquantum technologies also came in the late20th century:·In 1972, researchers showed thatmeasurements of one qubit can affect themeasurement of other qubits,demonstrating entanglement for the firsttime.17·In 1987, researchers measured the timeintervals between two photons and foundthat they were indistinguishable from oneanother, a property necessary for photonentanglement.18·In 1995, researchers demonstrated thefirst quantum logic gate based onindividual qubits.19·In 1998, researchers demonstratedthrough a proof of principle experimentthat quantum error correction is possible,which is necessary for cost-effectiveIn 1994, Peter Shor, a researcher at BellLabs, introduced Shor’s algorithm, analgorithm that could factor very largenumbers if a quantum computer were to14C. H. Bennett and G. Brassard, “Quantum Cryptography:Public Key Distribution and Coin Tossing,” InternationalConference on Computers, Systems, and Signal Processing,1984, (December 1984): pp. 175-179. According to an expert,BB84 was based on a scheme for quantum money that is, inprinciple, impossible to counterfeit, as proposed by StephenWiesner in 1970.15A. K. Eckert, “Quantum Cryptography Based on Bell’sTheorem.” Physical Review Letters, vol. 67, no. 6, (Aug. 5,1991), pp. 661-663.16be developed.16 This algorithm has thepotential to crack current encryptionschemes used in secure transactions,some of which are based on theassumption that factoring large numbersis impractical.P. Shor, “Algorithms for Quantum Computation: DiscreteLogarithms and Factoring,” 35th Annual Symposium onFoundations of Computer Science, (November 1994): pp. 124134.17S. J. Freedman and J. F. Clauser, “Experimental Test of LocalHidden-Variable Theories,” Physical Review Letters, vol. 28, no.14, (Apr. 3, 1972), pp. 938-941.18C. K. Hong, Z. Y. Ou, and L. Mandel, “Measurement ofSubpicosecond Time Intervals between Two Photons byInterference, “ Physical Review Letters, vol. 59, no. 18, (Nov. 2,1987), pp. 2044- 2046.19Logic gates are the building blocks for processing information(bits) in classical computation. Engineers can arrange logicgates in a circuit and create a flowchart that enables computersto carry out several kinds of logical operations, such asmathematical calculations. A quantum logic gate is similar, butuses qubits instead of traditional bits.Quantum Computing and Communications GAO-21-104422 7
quantum computing and communicationbecause excess noise destroys quantuminformation.20Quantum technologies continue to improve.Demonstrations range from a 3-qubitmagnetic resonance machine in 1998, a 14qubit entangled state using a trapped ionquantum computing system i
Some applications—such as distributed quantum computing, which connects multiple quantum computers together to solve a problem—require both quantum computing and communications technologies. Potential drawbacks of quantum technology include cost, complexity, energy consumption, and the possibility of malicious use. View GAO-22-104422.
1. Quantum bits In quantum computing, a qubit or quantum bit is the basic unit of quantum information—the quantum version of the classical binary bit physically realized with a two-state device. A qubit is a two-state (or two-level) quantum-mechanical system, one of the simplest quantum systems displaying the peculiarity of quantum mechanics.
Quantum computing is a subfield of quantum information science— including quantum networking, quantum sensing, and quantum simulation—which harnesses the ability to generate and use quantum bits, or qubits. Quantum computers have the potential to solve certain problems much more quickly t
Topics History of Computing What are classical computers made of? Moore's Law (Is it ending?) High Performance computing Quantum Computing Quantum Computers Quantum Advantage The Qubit (Information in superposition) Information storage Different kinds of quantum computers Superconducting vs Ion Traps Annealing vs Universal/Gate quantum computers
Quantum computing with photons: introduction to the circuit model, the one-way quantum computer, and the fundamental principles of photonic experiments . quantum computing are presented and the quantum circuit model as well as measurement-based models of quantum computing are introduced. Furthermore, it is shown how these concepts can
Keywords—machine learning, quantum computing, deep learning, quantum machine intelligence I. INTRODUCTION There is currently considerable interest in quantum computing. In the U.S. in January 2019, the National Quantum Initiative Act authorized 1.2 billion investment over the next 5-10 years (Rep Smith, 2019). A quantum computing race is ongoing
According to the quantum model, an electron can be given a name with the use of quantum numbers. Four types of quantum numbers are used in this; Principle quantum number, n Angular momentum quantum number, I Magnetic quantum number, m l Spin quantum number, m s The principle quantum
University of Central Florida Email: [dcm,magda]@cs.ucf.edu October 13, 2003 1. Contents 1Preface 8 2 Introduction 11 . A tremendous progress has been made in the area of quantum computing and quantum growing interest in quantum computing and quantum information theory is motivated by the, Quantum and.
building processes to facilitate group work. Do nothing, join in and comment on what’s going well. Experiment with group structures and explore process improvements. Help the group critique itself. Your role as leader becomes less active. Arrange appropriate ceremonies/rituals for celebration of accomplishments. Use or suggest inclusion activities that give new members a sense of acceptance .
