Textuality And Ambiguity Of Forensic Texts Egyptian Supreme Court: A Model
Textuality and Ambiguity of Forensic TextsEgyptian Supreme Court: A ModelDr. Fakhry Muhammad Al-Sayed Elieba*E-MaiL: alsun 2012@hotmail.comABSTRACTLegal texts are a subfield of forensic linguisticsinvolving the study of language and the law. This languageis an arcane and often impenetrable category. The purposeof this present study is to identify the field of Legal TextsARTICLE INFOand distinguish their different aspects, moreover to discussReceived 2020-09-02the distinctive field in homicide investigations in theAccepted 2020-12-09Egyptian Supreme Court thoroughly. Therefore, this paperis supported by three cases from the Egyptian SupremeKeywordscourt. The paper analyzes the textuality with a focus onboth the characteristics and criteria of forensic linguistics,Textuality,Ambiguity, Legal linking text to context and types of ambiguity either lexicalTexts,Forensic or structural features. Textuality integrated with ambiguitycan constitute a totality of properties giving cohesion andLinguistics,coherence in any meaningful text.linguisticfingerprint.Textual analysis of these legal texts also involvesunderstanding forensic language to gain information andproviding cues to ways through which communication ofsocial structures is understood. Textual analysis in legalstudies, like other texts, operates at seven criteria of text. In* Department of English, Gulf Colleges, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Elieba, Fakhry Muhammad Al-Sayed. (BIJHS) 2020, 2 (2): 114 - 164addition to paying particular attention to specific lexicaland structural ambiguity in forensic texts of cases underinvestigation. This paper aims to examine the textualityfeatures and thematic structures embedded in the EgyptianSupreme legal texts, and to determine the most dominantcausal factors of ambiguities in the Egyptian Supreme legaltexts. All of these properties have consequences forresearch techniques to extrapolate the nature of legal textsand the relations involved between textuality andambiguity.This paper also tackles the notion of ambiguityunder the umbrella of Empson’s (1949) and Crystal (1988).There are two types of ambiguity identified and they are asfollows: a. Syntactic or structural ambiguity generatingwhen the structure of a word in a sentence is unclear. b.Lexical or semantic ambiguity generating when a word hasmultiple meanings. Ambiguity occurs in the legal languagewhen the meaning of a term is not clear enough. This paperanalyzes three criminal cases containing ambiguity eitherlexical or structural one.I. IntroductionThis paper presents some Legal texts in the field of forensiclinguistics via the illustrations of three cases of the Egyptian Supremecourt. Olsson (2004) points out “Forensic Linguistics is the applicationof linguistics to legal issues” (p. 1). This field concerns withunderstanding the different aspects where language and the law areinterrelated. The concept of forensics as a text is familiar in socialanalysis, building on special language philosophy with their emphasison the importance of ‘message’, informed by focusing on utterances andattention from sayings to doings. The study of the Egyptian legal textsincludes the study of text types and forms of analysis in criminalcontexts, integrated with some types of ambiguity. Forensic linguisticsmay be traced back as early as 1927 (1). According to Olsson (2008),115
BSU International Journal of Humanities and social scienceSvartvik was the first scholar who coined the phrase forensic linguisticsin 1968 to analyze statements of some homicide crimes. In the 1980s,some specialists discussed the application of linguistics to legal cases.The 2000s witnessed a significant move in the field of forensiclinguistics described as a coming-of-age of the discipline (2).Olsson (2004) explains that forensic linguistics examineslanguage as it is used in the judge's direction, subpoenaing to a court,cross-examination, evidence presentation, police cautions, policetestimonies in court and the questioning process in court etc. On theother side, some scholars enumerate a variety of forensic text types asfollows: 1. Emergency call identified mainly as linguistic informationin threatening situations (Olsson, 2008). 2. Ransom demands or otherthreat communication identified as genuine or false threat (Falzini,2008). 3. A suicide note which is characteristically brief, concise andhighly propositional with a degree of equivocation (Olsson, 2004) 4.Death row statements either admit the crime, or deny it. 5. Social mediastatements and their interpretation to be identified by stylistic andstylometric techniques in a virtual authorship attribution cases to revealwhether they are illegal (e.g. prostitution or drug trafficking), orunethical (e.g. coercion or violence) (Olsson, 2004). 6. Trademark andintellectual property arguments (Hardaker,2015). 7. Disputes of authoridentification, this defining who wrote an anonymous text such as threatletters, mobile phone texts or emails, cases of plagiarism, voiceidentification etc. 8. A linguistic fingerprint that contains a collectionof symbols underpinning a speaker/writer as a unique individual’sfingerprint. 9. This field can even go further to analyze the black-boxesof airplanes (3). legal language has a high degree of precision andinclusivity that is required by the genre to be ‘taken seriously’ (Gibbons,2004, p.11), since there are ‘dangers inherent in the editing processbecause simpler texts often lose something in analysis, some knowledgeof the legal determinants of activity is consequently significant. AsCrystal (2003) argues that “legal discourse has multifarious directions.Its statements have to be so phrased that we can consider their general116
Elieba, Fakhry Muhammad Al-Sayed. (BIJHS) 2020, 2 (2): 114 - 164applicability, yet be specific enough to apply to individualcircumstances Above all, they have to be expressed in such a way thatpeople can be certain about the intention of the law respecting their rightsand duties (p. 374).”Therefore, analysis of textuality integrated with ambiguity in thefield of forensics are important. Based on the explanation above, thispaper aims to analyze the words, phrases or/and sentences that containambiguities found in Cassation Appeal No. 10017 of judicial 88,Cassation Appeal No. 17730 of judicial 88, Cassation Appeal No.11229 of judicial 88. Furthermore, the causal factors of each ambiguityare also explained in this study.2. Literature ReviewShuy, R. W. (2001) explores the defining characteristics ofdiscourse analysis in legal contexts. The study explains that ForensicLinguistics is a somewhat newly recognized subfield of study, buthaving advanced with important general collections of articles onlanguage and law, the centerpieces of these works are (Gibbons, 1994;Levi and Walker, 1990; Rieber and Stewart, 1990), books on thelanguage of the courtroom (Solan, 1993; Stygall, 1994), bilingualism inthe courtroom (Berk-Seligson, 1990), and aircraft communicationbreakdown (Cushing, 1994). The study pays attention to using familiartools to analyze criminal cases such as topic and response analyses,Speech act, and pragmatic analysis as central to conversation used asevidence in criminal cases, Voice identification and cases involvingcharges of libel or slander, i.e., defamation. Finally, the study tackles theconcept of discourse analysis and ambiguity in both written and spokenlanguage.Ali, J (2020) pinpoints a paper in criminal forensic linguistics. Thepaper emphasizes Forensic linguistics has significant contributions to thelegal context and field. This paper presents Forensic Linguistics (FL) asa relatively new field compared to phonetics, syntax, and other branches117
BSU International Journal of Humanities and social scienceof linguistics. It is an approach blending linguistics and law. It is aninterdisciplinary approach as it depends upon other disciplines such assyntax, semantics, pragmatics, discourse analysis, critical discourseanalysis, stylistics and phonology. The paper also tackles forensiclinguistics’ history, development, importance and applications. Itcorrelates forensic linguistics with language crimes specifically thecrimes that are committed by language like defamation, bribery, perjury,conspiracy, solicitation, plagiarism, and threatening. Finally, the paperexpects Forensic linguistics to be a promising field in legal proceedingsdue to its high importanceZakaryiah, L. (2013) presents a study about ‘Textuality as aLinguistic Mechanism for Codifying Legal Maxims in Islamic CriminalLaw’. This study examines the use of textuality as a linguisticmechanism to complement the juristic methodology of codifying legalmaxims from Qur’anic exegesis. It includes other different approaches,in addition to, textuality to be applied such as intertextuality andhypertextuality. These linguistic notions delineate aspects of text microorganization internally, the way utterances related together performingrelevant functions and interconnection between different sets of texts ina coherent way. Finally, this study concludes that the remit of legalmaxims codified from textual revelations be done directly or indirectly.Olsson (2008), outlines some important views concerning appliedlinguistics of forensic science to shed more light on its text types andForensic phonetics. He also investigates conditions of authorship inpolice interviews, Judges and juries and the meaning of legal words. Thestudy presents a brief demonstration of author profiling trying to laynecessary emphasis on some aspects of presentation and stressed that theanalysis did not relate to psychology or personality profiling, topics asto whose merits the author offers no opinion. In this study, severaltechniques of statements are tackled, whether oral or written,uninterrupted or in interview form. Several categories under whichstatements could be analyzed have been given. As pointed out, there are118
Elieba, Fakhry Muhammad Al-Sayed. (BIJHS) 2020, 2 (2): 114 - 164many further possible categories, and some of these were illustrated as araw material of statement analysis and handling.Salih, A. H. (2015), provides a contrastive study about structuralambiguity in English and Arabic. It refers to significant aspects of thesentence structure both in English and Arabic. The study points out thatthere are several factors causing structural ambiguity such as the dualityof parts of speech, absence of functional words, immediate constituent,compound and grammatical words etc. Contrastive analysis has beenmade to display the points of similarities and differences between thefactors of structural ambiguity in the two languages. It tackles types ofambiguity, factors of structural ambiguity, location of ambiguity andsituations of grammatical ambiguity in the language.3. Research MethodologyThis study aims to analyze both textuality and ambiguity of theEgyptian written legal texts. The data are taken from the EgyptianSupremecourt,Retrieved from https://www.cc.gov.eg/criminal judgments. There arethe three cases consecutively as follows: Cassation Appeal No. 10017of judicial 88, Cassation Appeal No. 17730 of judicial 88, CassationAppeal No. 11229 of judicial 88. Each case of the given three Cassationappeals most likely contains features of textual and ambiguous meaningsthat need to be analyzed. Method of data analysis depends on: a. Featuresof textuality, b. Identifying the words, phrases, and sentences which arepossibly ambiguous, c. Classifying them into the types of ambiguitywhether lexical or structural ambiguity.4. Objectives of the StudyThe objectives of this paper are intended to achieve the following:1.To identify the characteristics of the Egyptian Supreme legaltexts.119
BSU International Journal of Humanities and social science2.To analyze the textuality features and thematic structures imbuedin the Egyptian Supreme legal texts.3.To determine the most dominant causal factors of ambiguities inthe Egyptian Supreme legal texts.4.To highlight the phenomena generating ambiguities be resolvedby specific mechanisms?5. Problems of the Study1. What is the nature of characteristics involved in the EgyptianSupreme forensic texts?2. What are the nature of the textuality features and thematicstructures imbued in the EgyptianSupreme legal texts?3. To what extent are the causal factors of lexical and structuralambiguities detected in theEgyptian legal language?4. How can the phenomena generate ambiguities be resolved byspecific mechanisms?6. Significance of the StudyThe result of this study provides some mechanisms ofunderstanding textuality and ambiguity nature in the Egyptian Supremelegal texts. In addition, this study gives some contributions to theoreticaland practical field of forensic linguistics. In the theoretical field, it isexpected to provide an ability to understand some features of theEgyptian forensic textuality, as well as, how to disambiguate theintended meanings either lexical or structural in the Egyptian legal texts.Practically, it gives some information about the textual features of legaltexts and types of ambiguity used through dealing with the Supremecourt of Egypt.120
Elieba, Fakhry Muhammad Al-Sayed. (BIJHS) 2020, 2 (2): 114 - 1647. Discussion and Analysis7.1 Characteristics of Legal languageThis paper takes into consideration some of the main linguisticfeatures of the Egyptian Supreme legal texts. Consequently, there aresome lexical features of these legal texts. Cornu (1990) stipulates fivecharacteristics distinguishing legal texts as follows:1. Legal language is a special language in all countries of theworld. Therefore, legal vocabulary is a set of terminological terms thathave special meanings in legal discourse (p.22).2- Legal language is a technical language for everyone who worksin the field of law such as legislators, judges, and lawyers (p. 23).According to Tiersma (1999), “if a word or a phrase is used exclusivelyby a particular trade or profession or if that profession uses it in a waythat differs from its normal meaning and the term has a relatively welldefined sense, it should be considered a technical term (p. 108). The table(1) below, displays some technical terms used in the Egyptian Supremelegal texts:121
BSU International Journal of Humanities and social scienceEnglish languageactions immune against the misappropriation of public fundsabuse of authorityinfluence peddlinga permanent ) irreversible( disability / eryembezzlementrapearmed (compulsive) robberydrug traffickingterrorismprofiteeringArabic language أفعال ليست بمنأى عن التأثيم مرسوم / حكم يعتبر ويعد / طعن / يطعن / يستأنف / استئناف ". "تشريح جريمة الطبيب الشرعي جناية االستيالء على المال العام إساءة استعمال السلطة استغالل النفوذ العاهة المستديمة عمليات الخطف يقتل جريمة قتل أخذ الرهائن الرشوة الختالس االغتصاب السرقة باإلكراه المخدرات االرهاب التربح Table (1) some technical terms used in the legal texts used in theEgyptian Cassation language.Actually, taking into consideration of these terms is of greatimportance in grasping any given legal text in which they occur.3- Legal language is an ancient, legacy, renewable and vital oneat the same time, but it develops continuously. It is renewable, adoptsnew terms and introduces new terms via the legislators (p.23). Tiersma(1999) states that “legal language often strives toward great formality; itnaturally gravitates towards archaic language” (pp. 95-96). That is, legallanguage vocabulary is interspersed with some archaic legal expressionsto give a distinctive colour to its great formality. For example, thelexicon ‘ ينعي / protest or appeal’ as an alternative of ‘ ’يحتج , ‘ ’تأثيم ratherthan ‘ تَجْ نِيح , تَجْ ريم , ِإدانة , ’ ِإتِِّهام , ‘ مطالعة / peruse’ instead of ‘ قراءة /read’,‘ ’الطاعن as a substitution of ‘ ’اعترض or ‘ ’الشاكي and so on. Also, Crystaland Davy, 1986) argue that “there are specific archaic adverbs which are122
Elieba, Fakhry Muhammad Al-Sayed. (BIJHS) 2020, 2 (2): 114 - 164a combination of referential elements to avoid challengeable changes ofmeanings such as: ‘here’ ‘there’ and ‘where’ with certain prepositions:of, after, by, under etc. (p. 213). The table (2) below, illustrate someadverbs which are a combination of referential elements:EnglishLanguagehereto uageLanguage/ بمقتضي hereinafter بموجب referred ادناه hereinbefore حتى االن thereof انطالقا herein تعويال علي / من Arabiclanguage المشار اليه فيما بعد ما ورد أعاله بالنسبة لـ في هذا Table 2. Adverbs of referential elements.4- Legal language is a scientific and practical language: the legallanguage is scientific because it expresses legal facts, legal systems andlegal processes such as contracts, agreements, and the technical natureof legal language. It is a practical language in the service of the law asit is used in the formation and application of the law in an accuratetechnical form (p.26).5 - Legal language is a straightforward language, that is, eachword has its own meaning and every term in the legal phrase is chosenbased on a specific arrangement, an organization to achieve accuracy andclarity in the meaning. In addition, the lack of rhetorical devices such as:metaphor, simile, metonymy, and pun can enhance accuracy and clarity(p. 28). In this context, Sabra (1995) states that “legal texts are highlyconcerned with the exactness of reference; hence, they tend towardlexical repetition, and therefore to functional redundancy (p. 29). Thesentence below illustrates this lexical repetition of reference:123
BSU International Journal of Humanities and social scienceEnglish LanguageArabic languageUpontheimpact of " على أثر خالفات مالية بين المتهم financial differences between the الطاعن " وخاله " والد المجني عليها " أخذ accused "the appellant " and his. األخير إيصاالت أمانة على المتهم uncle, "the victim's father", thelatter has got trust receipts on theaccused.Here, if we opt for the objective pronoun ‘him/ ’هـ instead ofthe word ‘the accused’ in the phrase ‘ إيصاالت أمانة عليه , the latter has gottrust receipts on him’, this certainly creates misunderstanding andopacity. This repetition is functional in order to disambiguate theintended meaning. In addition, Tiersma (1995, p. 88) ) points out somespecial uses of some legal lexicon. These special uses can be appliedupon the legal texts of the Egyptian Supreme as follows: ( ثمة , there exist ا (s)/ فضال عن هذا , in addition, لما كان ذلك , hereinafter/ بمنأى عن التأثيم , immuneagainst criminalization/ lacking in substantiation, القصور في التسبيب /defective reasoning, )فساد في االستدالل . Using such terms in legallanguage is quite different from using them in an ordinary one. The word‘the same’ usually suggests a comparison to a similar object or person,but in legal use, it refers to the sameness of reference. For example:English LanguageArabic language- and not being satisfied وعدم اطمئنانها إلى ذات األدلة with the same evidence for. بالنسبة لمتهم آخر another accused.In this sentence above, the phrase ‘ ذات , the same’ refers to theword ‘evidence’. Correspondingly, the demonstrative pronoun ‘those’can conveniently substitute the phrase ‘the same.’ Also, the determiner‘such’ means normally ‘that sort’ or ‘this sort’. This can be observed ina legal context as follows:124
Elieba, Fakhry Muhammad Al-Sayed. (BIJHS) 2020, 2 (2): 114 - 164English LanguageArabic language“and then the ruling ومن ثم خلص الحكم إلى رفض ذلك concluded that refusal of such. الدفع appeal”.Apparently, the phrase ‘such appeal’ signifies ‘this appeal’. So,Such determiners act in the same way as the demonstrative pronoun‘this.’ In a similar vein, Alcaraz and Brian (2002) point out that there isa common use of doublets combined in pairs (p. 9). Such words may benouns, verbs, adjectives, or even prepositions. For example:English languageArabic languagenull and void الغيا وباطال withmaliceaforementioned سبق اإلصرار والترصد and Premeditationpossessed and acquired حاز واحرز a lack of causation and corruption is , القصور في التسبيب inferred in reasoning والفساد في االستدالل accord and satisfaction اتفاق وقناعة aid and abet المساعدة واإلغراء 7.2 Textuality Features of the Egyptian Forensic TextsTextuality is the use of language characteristic of written texts inorder to enable the addressee to identify the quality of a text. Textualityfollows seven standards, according to (De Beaugrande & Dressler,1981/2002), for a satisfying text including Cohesion, ty,Situationality,Intertextuality. The process of ‘textuality’ encompasses all of the aspectsin the construction and interpretation of legal texts, their emergence andambiguity. Therefore, the words of the legal texts produce an importantintertextual context for any analysis. The criteria ‘Cohesion andCoherence’ standards refer to the structural harmony of a text to make awhole unity of components such as recurrence, parallelism, paraphrase,pro-forms, anaphora, use of tense and junction for representing and125
BSU International Journal of Humanities and social scienceconveying knowledge by relations etc. For example, the parallelstructure below:Case:10017Rather, the contradictionbetween the two legal evidencerepresented in the confessionissued by the appellant and thetechnical evidence, which is thereport of the autopsy of thevictim’s body. فضالا عن قيام التناقض بين الدليلين القولي المتمثل في االعتراف الصادر من الطاعن وبين الدليل الفني وهو تقرير الصفة التشريحية . لجثة المجني عليها Case:17730The judgment condemnedthe murder, attempted murder,participated in and agreed upon,premeditated and monitored.establishing, managing andjoining a group established inviolation of the provisions of thelaw. إذ دانهم بجرائم القتل عمداا والشروع فيه واالشتراك مع سبق , واالتفاق عليه اإلصرار والترصد وإنشاء وتأسيس وإدارة واالنضمام إلى جماعة تأسست على خالف . أحكام القانون Parallelism in the example above represents an identical balancewithin the sentence of similar words, phrases, or clauses that have thesame grammatical structure. This technique can make the legal languagemore forceful, interesting, and clear. Similar clauses are represented in(the two legal evidence represented in the confession issued by theappellant and the technical evidence, which is the report of the autopsyof the victim’s body), the structure of the past verbs (condemned,attempted, participated- agreed upon, premeditated and monitored), thenominalization (establishing, managing and joining) to uniform inexpression and function. It is observed that parallelism in Cassation legaltexts constructs the same verb, noun, adverb, or adjective formsconsistently. Coherence is the continuity of senses in a text by the use ofrelated meanings when there is causality, reason, purpose, time in thetext. Coherence concerns the ways in which the components of thetextual world related and unified together. For example, if the text isreflected as “Cassation Appeal of Criminal Chambers ” this legal textmay be exemplified mechanical language as follows:126
Elieba, Fakhry Muhammad Al-Sayed. (BIJHS) 2020, 2 (2): 114 - 164Case:10017Intent killing. Criminal قصد . قتل عمد intent, Crime, Constituent Essentials, " "جريمة أركانها . جنائي The trial court, Its authority to value "محكمة الموضوع" سلطتها في the evidence." تقدير الدليل In terms of ‘Intentionality’, the author of legal text intends toachieve a specific goal cohesively and coherently together via the legalwords. For example:10017Regarding,theappeal بالنسبة للطعن المقدم من submitted by the accused person المحكوم عليه بإعدامه sentenced to death.This text is intentionally about (a criminal person), and (the deathpunishment) i.e., the belief is that (the criminal person sentenced todeath).The standard of ‘Acceptability’ means that the addressees of a textreceive it for functional purposes expecting something from thatcriterion. Consequently, for the corresponding of expectation with whatis meant in the legal text via a coherent and cohesive set of components.For example:11229The court ruled - قبول الطعن - حكمت المحكمة accepting the convicted المحكوم عليه وعرض النيابة العامة للقضية person's appeal, and the وفى الموضوع برفض الطعن واقرار , شكال PublicProsecution. الحكم الصادر بإعدام المحكوم عليه presented the case in form,and in the matter rejectedthe appeal and approvedthe death sentence passed.It is a forensic language, judge-criminal accepts a ruling as asentence of his language. Informativity standard concerns with howunexpected, expected or known, unknown are the occurrences in the text.For example,127
BSU International Journal of Humanities and social scienceCase:11229Thereinafter, the rulingdealt with the defendant’s objectiondefense, raised and responded towith what disputed, and the rulingwas issued unanimously by themembers of the court then thedeath sentence for the convictshould be approved. وكان , لما كان ذلك الحكم قد تناول دفاع المحكوم ُ عليه الموضوعي الذي أثاره وكان , ُ ورد عليه بما يفنده الحكم قد صدر بإجماع أراء أعضاء المحكمة ومن ثم فإنه يتعين إقرار الحكم الصادر بإعدام المحكوم . عليه It is knowledge about articles of judgment, propositions, the rulingcontent, and to receive attention to the legal text. Situationality dictatesthat a forensic text is relevant to a situation of occurrence. This is relatedto the context and the situation in which the addressee is in. For example,“Court of Cassation” is required to confirm the verdict judgment by theexecution of the convict. Lastly, Intertextuality, i.e. The ruling processelicits from extensive repertoire of legal written texts knowledge,experience, previous rulings all affect the present ruling perception. Thatis why the construction and the response of a given forensic text dependon the participants’ knowledge of other forensic texts.7.3 Thematic structure of Forensic TextsThe thematic structure of the three criminal cases examined isrelatively helpful to the identification of topic area ‘Forensic texts’ andthe natural progression of the organization of structure. The 'internalorganization' of the information unit, relates to how ‘given and new’information is distributed within the forensic text. Characteristically, thelegal scholars thematize given information before new information. The'unmarked' ordering of information construction is handled to be givennew. Naturally, information units which are initial in a discourse containonly new information. Brown and Yule (1983) point out five syntacticforms that are regularly discussed in association with 'given' information(p.171). These syntactic forms include:(1) Lexical units which are mentioned for the second time asfollows, particularly those in definite expressions.128
Elieba, Fakhry Muhammad Al-Sayed. (BIJHS) 2020, 2 (2): 114 - 164English languageArabic language1. Under the weight and threat ofthe authority of the case officer with theindication of the officer being alonetestifying about the occurrence of thearrest (Case: 10017). وتحت وطأة وتهديد سلطان وظيفة .1 كما دفع بحصول القبض عليه , ضابط الواقعة وتفتيشه قبل صدور األمر بهما من النيابة العامة بداللة انفراد الضابط بالشهادة على واقعة ,. الضبط (2) Lexical units which are presented as being within the semanticfield of a previously mentioned lexical unit as follows, again particularlythose in definite expressions.English languageArabic language2. A cult founded in violation of جماعة أسست على خالف أحكام .2the provisions of the law . and القانون واالعتداء على األخرين وكان اإلرهاب assaulting others. Terrorism was the. وسيلتها لتنفيذ هذه األغراض instrument to implement these purposes(Case: 11229).(3) Pro-nominals used anaphorically following a full lexical formin the preceding sentence as follows:English languageArabic language3. People claimed they areEgypt’s Ajnad (Case: 17730). صا زعموا أنهم أجناد مصر قام أشخا ا .3(4) Pronominals used exophorically (to refer to the physicalcontext of situation) where the referent is present, as follows:English languageArabic language4. Whereas the appellants. وحيث إن الطاعنين إذ دانهم بجرائم .4having convicted them of intentional ( القتل عمداا والشروع فيه واالشتراك واالتفاق عليه murders, attempted them, participated. ) 17730 : ق in and agreed upon ) Case:17730).129
BSU International Journal of Humanities and social scienceThe interpretation runs as " the crimes of intentional murders,attempted them, participated in and agreed upon ". This kind of referenceis called exophora, since it refers to crime outside the text altogether.(5) Pro-forms as in follows:English languageArabic language5. a. For the validity of the force يشترط لصحة الدفع بقوة الشيء . ا .5of a judgment in criminal matters, there المحكوم فيه في المسائل الجنائية أن يكون هناك is a requirement that a provision has. حكم بات سبق صدوره في محاكمة جنائية already been pronounced in the criminaltrial (Case:17730).5.b. They threatened him with مهددين إياه بأسلحة نارية واستولوا . ب .5firearms and seized his money and some وكذلك فعلوا , على أمواله وبعض األدوية باإلكراه drugs forcibly, and so they did with the. مع المجني عليه victim(Case:17730).The pro-forms ‘there/ ’هناك and ‘so they did/ ’وكذلك فعلوا areconcerned with particular syntactic realizations, where the mainelements in the second sentence are held to be in some sense 'given'.a. Judgment in criminal matters, b. the defendants. Pro-form is aword or phrase that replaces the place of another word (or word group)in a sentence. Crystal (2008) defines pro-form as “a term used in somemodels of grammatical description to refer collectively to the items in asentence which substitute for other items or constructions (p.390). Thesepro-forms are pronouns, but other words such as (here, there, so, and do)can also function as pro-forms (5).7.4 Forensic Discourse Analysis
ambiguity. This paper also tackles the notion of ambiguity under the umbrella of Empson's (1949) and Crystal (1988). There are two types of ambiguity identified and they are as follows: a. Syntactic or structural ambiguity generating structure of a word in a sentence is unclear. b. Lexical or semantic ambiguity generating when a word has
Keywords: lexical ambiguity, syntactic ambiguity, humor Introduction . These prior studies found that ambiguity is a source which is often used to create humor. There are two types of ambiguity commonly used as the source of humors, i.e. lexical and syntactic ambiguity. The former one refers to ambiguity conveyed
A. Use of Ambiguity Ambiguity is widely used as a way to produce a humorous effect both in English and Chinese humor because ambiguity can make a word or sentence understood more than one level of meaning. In this part, two kinds of ambiguity will be analyzed, including phonological ambiguity and lexical ambiguity. 1.
Forensic Science is the integration of core scientific disciplines. Forensic science involves a variety of careers. 1. Students will recognize the major contributors to the development of Forensic . Worksheets Lab; Activity Project assessments Research activities such as “famous forensic scientists and their contributions” or “careers inFile Size: 444KBPage Count: 21People also search forforensic science for high school textbook pdfdo forensic criminologist investigate the cri forensic criminology bookswhat is a dental hygienisthow to check fingerprint forensic criminologyare dental hygienists and dentist same thing
ambiguity and then describing the causes and the ways to disambiguate the ambiguous sentences by using different ways from some linguists. The finding shows that the writer finds lexical ambiguity (23,8%) and structural or syntactic ambiguity (76,2%). Lexical ambiguity divided into some part of speech;
ambiguity. 5.1.2 Lexical Ambiguity Lexical ambiguity is the simplest and the most pervasive type of ambiguity. It occurs when a single lexical item has more than one meaning. For example, in a sentence like "John found a bat", the word "bat" is lexically ambiguous as it refer s to "an animal" or "a stick used for hitting the ball in some games .
This research focuses on the case of ambiguity found in Hooray textbook which is used by the sixth grade of elementary school students. The research is aimed at analyzing: 1) the types of ambiguity found in Hooray textbook, 2) the . lexical ambiguity (29, 7%), 94 referential ambiguity (53, 7%) and 29 surface .
I. ambiguity (ambiguous)The general sense of this term, referring to a WORD ORSENTENCE with expresses more than one MEANING, is found in LINGUISTICS, but several types of ambiguity are recognised. The m'ost widely discussed type in recent years is grammatical (or struc-tural) ambiguity.In PHRASE-STRUCTURE ambiguity, alternative
The computational anatomy of psychosis hypothesis that the mean is zero. The sample mean provides evi-dence against the null hypothesis in the form of a prediction error: namely, the sample mean minus the expectation under the null hypothesis. The sample mean provides evidence against the null but how much evidence? This can only be quantified in relation to the precision of the prediction .
