Physiological Requirements In Triathlon
Review ArticlePhysiological requirements in triathlonMILLET GP1, VLECK VE, BENTLEY DJ.Millet GP, Vleck VE, Bentley DJ. Physiological requirements in triathlon. J. Hum. Sport Exerc. Vol. 6, No. 2,2011.INTRODUCTIONExercise physiologists working with triathletes have to deal (1) with different exercise modes; (2) variations inswim, cycle and run training history between the athletes that in turn influence their training adaptations andphysiological profiles; (3) different genders and finally (4) different triathlon distances (in this article, we shallfocus only on Olympic distance OD vs. Long Distance LD).‘Traditional’ viewpointTraditionally [1-4], endurance performance is thought to be mainly determined by the following factors:maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max); Lactate/ventilatory threshold (LT/VT) and Economy/efficiency(Figure 1) together with – depending on the distance and the authors –Anaerobic Capacity (AC) or criticalPower (CP).Figure 1. Overall schematic of the multiple ‘traditional’ physiological factors that interact as determinants ofperformance velocity or power output [4].1Corresponding author.JOURNAL OF HUMAN SPORT & EXERCISE ISSN 1988-5202 Faculty of Education. University of Alicantedoi:10.4100/jhse.2011.62.01
Millet et al.JOURNAL OF HUMAN SPORT & EXERCISEIt is of interest to note that only the two first of these factors (VO2max and LT/VT) have been extensivelyinvestigated in triathletes.“Performance V O2“ (i.e. how long a given rate of aerobic and anaerobic metabolism can be sustained) is.determined by the interaction between V O2max and lactate threshold (LT), whereas efficiency determineshow much speed or power (i.e. “performance velocity”) can be achieved for a given amount of energyconsumption [4]. However, these physiological variables measured in either cycling and running may adaptindifferently as a consequence of cross training in cycling and running [5-16]; cross training being defined as‘combined alternative training modes within a sport specific regime’. It is also possible that the results of suchphysiological tests in cycling and running may be influenced by the athlete’s original training background. By.comparing physiological variables as maximal oxygen consumption ( V O2max), anaerobic threshold (AT),heart rate, economy or delta efficiency measured in cycling and running in triathletes, we aimed to identify theeffects of exercise mode on, and whether triathletes competing in OD vs LD events differ as regards,physiological profile.‘Contemporary’ viewpointRecently [1], it has been suggested that “these ‘traditional’ parameters are important because they determinethe character of, and place constraints upon, the kinetics of VO2 during exercise. We suggest that only byappreciating how the ‘traditional’ parameters of physiological function interact with the kinetics of VO2 can thephysiological determinants of athletic performance be truly understood”.This ‘contemporary’ viewpoint [1] claims that the characteristics of the VO2 kinetics [for a review; [17] ]- thatdescribe the time course of VO2 at onset of exercise (or to a larger extent during any increase in intensity)determine the ‘intensity domains’ (Figure 2) and therefore the rate of changes (accumulation / storage /utilisation) in the ‘traditionally’-described limiting factors of performance (Figure 3).Figure 2. The ‘intensity domains’ [1].ii 2011 ISSUE 2 VOLUME 6 2011 University of Alicante
Millet et al.JOURNAL OF HUMAN SPORT & EXERCISEFigure 3. The role of VO2 kinetics in heavy- and severe-intensity exercise tolerance [1] (Key: CHOcarbohydrate, AC anaerobic capacity).It is surprising that there are very few studies describing or comparing VO2 kinetics in triathletes.1. Training characteristics of LD vs OD triathletesGiven the different race intensity and durations of OD and LD racing, and the fact that athletes increasinglytend to specialise in one or the other competition, it is logical that significant training (and therefore,physiological) differences, should exist between the two groups. Surprisingly, however, little examination of theway that LD vs. OD triathletes train has been carried out. Table 1 (overleaf) summarises the results of the onlycomparative study that exists to date (Vleck et al., 2009, Vleck 2010).Essentially, OD athletes spend less time per week than LD athletes doing ‘long run’ (p 0.05 for both genders)and ‘long bike’ sessions (p 0.05, for females only). The length of individual such sessions is also less in ODthan LD athletes in (p 0.05). Squad OD athletes also do more speed work cycle and less long run sessionsper week (both p 0.05). Less elite OD athletes do back to back cycle run training than LD athletes (p ,0.05).VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 2011 iii
Millet et al.JOURNAL OF HUMAN SPORT & EXERCISETable 1. Training characteristics of British (1994) National Squad triathletes during a typical race training weekwithout taper.Number of sessions perweekHours per weekDistance (km)Long bikeHill rep bikesSpeed workbikeOther bikeLong runHill rep runSpeed workrunOther runLong bikeHill rep bikeSpeed workbikeOther bikeLong runHill rep runSpeed workrunOther runLong bikeHill rep bikeSpeed workbikeOther bikeLong runHill rep runSpeed workrunOther runElite maleOD1.1 1.30.3 0.5*1.5 1.0Sub-elitemale OD1.2 1.10.2 0.42.1 1.0Elite maleIR1.5 1.50.3 0.51.5 1.0Elite ODfemale1.5 0.61.2 1.1*2.1 1.0Sub-eliteOD female1.4 1.60.6 0.51.0 0.6FemaleIR elite2.3 1.30.5 1.00.5 0.61.1 1.30.7 0.50.3 0.51.2 0.81.1 1.10.7 0.5 0.3 0.41.5 1.21.5 1.51.0 0.7 0.3 0.61.1 0.50.5 0.60.8 0.50.25 0.51.0 0.01.4 1.60.7 0.50.01.6 0.82.3 1.30.8 0.50.5 0.581.0 0.02.0 2.03.2 2.60.3 0.71.2 0.72.2 1.33.1 2.70.1 0.41.3 1.02.2 1.74.7 1.80.8 0.91.1 0.81.0 0.02.45 1.4 0.7 0.81.45 1.01.4 0.82.25 1.80.05.95 10.71.5 0.65.8 1.7 0.01.0 0.81.6 1.61.3 1.0 0.4 0.50.8 0.61.4 1.70.4 0.6 0.2 0.31.0 1.02.4 3.01.6 0.70.8 0.90.9 0.70.9 0.90.7 0.60.2 0.50.8 0.61.5 0.40.2 0.3φ0.01.13 1.02.6 1.02.2 0.3φ0.5 0.60.87 0.11.2 0.9105.0 75.749.5 24.654.1 83.616.8 15.15.6 7.8 6.5 6.31.0 1.380.5 52.50.5 0.4x52 73.50.6 0.668.5 29.31.5 0.686.2 43.047.7 33.38.0 11.328.0 17.011.8 17.816.0 17.016.6 19.329.0 21.51.3 0.6x116.0 31.80.08.0 13.953.8 78.2036.9 34.824.1 33.210.9 11.512.0 17.012.0 7.014.9 6.524.3 24.020.1 6.42.5 4.29.8 8.10.0 8.3 10.92.5 4.28.6 9.11.5 4.27.7 5.01.0 1.79.2 6.0-10.3 7.124.6 19.017.4 15.54.6 5.67.3 4.8Abbreviations: 'OD' Olympic distance, 'IR' Ironman distance , , , , φ or significantly different value (p 0.02) from group marked with same symbol.*, , , or significantly different value (p 0.05) from group marked with same symbol.Data on weekly training volume in hours (Table 2) or mileage (Table 3), that are differentiated by competitivedistance, ability level and or gender, are scarce. Retrospective studies investigating whether training contenthas increasingly diverged between OD and LD triathletes, since the 1980’s, would be of interest andpotentially allow for better understanding of the extent to which the sport has changed over the past 30 years.iv 2011 ISSUE 2 VOLUME 6 2011 University of Alicante
Millet et al.JOURNAL OF HUMAN SPORT & EXERCISETable 2. Weekly training time (h).NSex21M20FAbilityEliteDist.Total/wk , 18-21]13.43.76.63.0[16, 21, 22]Short[23, 24]46M14.0Comp204.92.7[20, 21, 25]F604.04Short7.54.38.218.533.4 1.48.3 2.819.5 7.66.1 4.58.8 4.5Comp14.523.20 1.785.70 1.93Elite18.5 2.54.2 0.63.8 0.9Comp2.0[21, 26][27-32]M12Elite25Long3.9 1.7[20][27, 33]F710.3 2.3[20, 21, 32]Table 3. Triathlon training distance (km).NSex45LevelDist.ETotal .99[16, 20, 21, 34-38]19.112.0201.143.0[20, 36, 39-52]M121C20E187.8 69.412.2180.454.6[16, 21, 26]C194.4 43.29.574.3227.78[21, 26, 53]E200.7 136.716.4178.9186.2[20, 54]10.2326.858.7[54-59]11.0 3.0148.3 61.737.5 112.3[21]9.8353.472.4[54, 57]33F2297MShortCLong7FE26FC196.9 67.3Key: M male F female E Elite C Competitive L lowVOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 2011 v
Millet et al.JOURNAL OF HUMAN SPORT & EXERCISE2. Maximal aerobic power and the anaerobic threshold in OD and LD triathletes2.1 Maximal aerobic powerTable 4 shows the studies that have reported maximal oxygen uptake and peak work load or power for cyclingand running in triathletes [11-13, 15, 49, 51, 60-95] .Kohrt et al.[61] and O’Toole et al.[62] were among the first groups of researchers to compare V O2max oftriathletes measured in both cycle ergometry and treadmill running. In 13 LD triathletes, they found that VO2max was significantly lower in cycle ergometry as compared with treadmill running (57.9 5.7 vs. 60.5 5.6.ml·kg-1·min-1). In contrast, O’Toole et al.[62] reported similar V O2max values for treadmill running and cycling.Therefore, the data were inconclusive as regards differences in V O2max between cycling and running intriathletes. Although said data were obtained during the ‘early ages’ of LD triathlon, however, they still appearvalid.Similarly, it seems that OD triathletes exhibit similar values for V O2max in cycling and running [12, 76, 80]. Inanother study, Miura et al.[87] examined two groups of triathletes whom they characterised as ‘superior’ or.‘slower’ level. They found no significant difference in V O2max in cycling and running in both groups.Therefore, any differences in V O2max between exercise modes may not be due to ability level. However,.Schabort et al.[88] found V O2max to be significantly higher in treadmill running than cycle ergometry (68.9 .7.4 vs. 65.6 6.3 ml·kg-1·min-1) in national level triathletes. Most studies have also shown that V O2max issimilar (i.e. with less than a 7% difference, or approximately the 5 ml.min.kg of estimated methodological errorthat occurs during measurement of VO2max) in cycling and running for triathletes over a wide range ofcompetitive levels [12, 68, 75, 76, 80, 85].A schema of the differences in VO2max between cycling and running in triathletes is provided below(Figure 4). It emphasizes that the multi-sport training induces a profile that is intermediate to that ofrunners or cyclists.Differences between running and cycling : VO2maxRunners -EliteRunners - intermediateRunners -LowTriathletes - EliteTriathletes - intermediateTriathletes - LowCyclists -EliteCyclists -intermediateCyclists -Low-10%vi 2011 ISSUE 2 VOLUME 6-5%0%5%10%15% 2011 University of Alicante
Millet et al.JOURNAL OF HUMAN SPORT & EXERCISE2.2 Anaerobic thresholdDespite there is still controversy over the validity of the AT, a number of studies in triathletes have extended on.initial studies by comparing both V O2max and a measure of the AT in cycling and running in triathletes [12, 13,76, 96, 97]. Table 5 shows the ventilatory or anaerobic threshold data in cycling and running in OD and LDtriathletes [9, 12, 13, 39, 49, 51, 60, 66, 76, 80, 81, 87, 94, 96, 98-105].Kohrt et al. [70] conducted a 6 to 8 month longitudinal investigation of 14 moderately trained LD triathletes. The.researchers quantified V O2max and the LT in both cycling and running. V O2max remained relatively constantin both cycling and running until the latter stages of the training period, possibly reflecting an increase in.training intensity at that time. However, V O2max together with the LT in cycling was consistently lower thanthat obtained for treadmill running. This suggests that the subjects training background was more extensive incycling than running. This study also indicates that the nature of training in either exercise mode may influenceadaptation in cycling or running. In a more recent longitudinal study [106], taking over one season in trained ODtriathletes, the relative stability of V O2max and the larger change in VT under the influence of specific training.was confirmed. However, Albrecht et al.[60] found no difference between the VT (expressed as % V O2max)obtained in cycling (78.8%) or running (79.3%). In accordance with this, Kreider[15] showed no significantdifference in the VT in triathletes completing incremental tests in cycling and treadmill running.Interestingly, these authors found that the exercise intensity sustained during the cycle and running stages of aOD triathlon was similar. In single sport endurance competitions it is generally thought that the AT reflects theability to sustain a set percentage of maximum capacity [107]. Kreider’s data[11], collected for a triathlon event,imply otherwise. Despite the VT of the athletes occurring at a different exercise intensity within isolated.incremental running and cycling tests (90 vs. 85% of V O2max), the exercise intensity that they sustainedduring a race was similar for both exercise modes. However, De Vito et al.[102] showed the VT in running to belower after prior cycle exercise in OD triathlon. These results and those reported by Zhou et al.[80] suggest thatthe cycle stage of a OD triathlon influences the ability to sustain a set percentage of maximal capacity duringthe subsequent running stage.Miura et al.[87] also reported VT measured in cycling and running to be similar, in absolute terms, in two groupsof triathletes who varied in OD triathlon race time. Schneider et al.[13] was able to confirm these findings and.found that whilst V O2max was significantly higher in running when compared with cycle exercise (75.4 7.3vs. 70.3 6.0 ml·kg-1·min-1), the VT was not significantly different between cycling and running when.expressed as an absolute V O2 value but did differ relative to V O2max (66.8 3.7 vs. 71.9 6.6%).2.3. Heart rateIn triathletes, the HRmax observed in cycling is often lower by 6-10 b·min-1 than that obtained during running[49,70, 86, 108]. Longitudinal investigations have demonstrated HRmax to remain relatively stable over the course of aseason[106], with higher values ( 5 b·min-1) observed in running than in cycling[70]. In contrast, there is alsoevidence suggesting that HRmax is similar between cycling and running modes[61, 75, 80, 95, 107]. Although thisappears to hold for males, differences were observed for this variable in females by some authors[63].Schneider and Pollack[96], however, found no such significant differences between cycling and running HRmaxin elite female triathletes.The HR corresponding to the AT is used to prescribe submaximal exercise training loads [109, 110]. The dataconcerning triathletes indicate that the HR corresponding to certain inflection points associated with the AT isalways higher in running than cycling, both when expressed in absolute terms and relative to HRmax [13, 49, 80, 86,96, 108]. Schneider et al.[13] reported a significant difference in the HR corresponding to the VT in cycling andrunning (145.0 9.0 vs. 156.0 8.0) in ‘highly trained’ triathletes. This corresponded to 80.9 3.4 vs. 85.4 4.1% HRmax. In another study by the same research group and conducted on elite female triathletes [96], aVOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 2011 vii
Millet et al.JOURNAL OF HUMAN SPORT & EXERCISEhigher HR was recorded at the VT in running than in cycling (164.7 4.0 vs. 148.2 3.4) and this differencewas also evident when HR was expressed as a % of HRmax (87.3 1.6 vs. 79.7 1.5%). Similarly, Roecker etal.[108] found a difference of 20 b.min-1 between HR determined at the LT on cycling ergometer (149.9 18.0b.min-1) and treadmill (169.6 15.7 b.min-1). However, recreational subjects (-22 b.min-1) and cyclists (-14b.min-1) exhibited lower differences than triathletes and runners. Additionally, the differences were notinfluenced by gender.There is some evidence that HR may not differ between cycling and running. Basset and Boulay [11] have.reported that the relationship between HR and % V O2max did not differ when calculated either from a treadmillor from a cycle ergometer test. These authors showed also that HR was similar between running and cycleergometer tests throughout the training year and concluded that triathletes could use a single mode of testingfor prescribing their training HR in running and cycling throughout the year [95].Zhou et al.[80] showed that the HR corresponding to the VT was significantly higher in running (174.6 4.5) ascompared with cycling (166.4 7.6). However these authors found that the HR measured in a OD triathlonrace was similar to the HR at the VT in cycling but much lower in running. Other studies have also shown adecrease in the HRmax and the HR corresponding to the VT during an incremental running test performed aftersubmaximal cycling[48]. Hue et al.[49] have also demonstrated that the HR during a 10 km run after 40 km ofcycling is higher when compared with the same run without cycling. Therefore, even though the HRcorresponding to the AT or HRmax may be similar in running compared with cycling (in exercise tests performedin isolation), the HR corresponding to the AT determined from an incremental running test may be different tothat observed in a race situation, especially in running. At elite level, due to the stochastic pace, there is nodemand to control the exercise intensity for the run in OD triathlon via HR. Within LD triathlon, the potentialuse of HR for controlling the running pace might be of interest, at least at the beginning of the marathon.However, to our knowledge there is no published protocol for determining HR for this purpose. Furthermore,the effect of prior cycling on HR during running should be considered when prescribing HR during runningtraining on its own.2.4 Running economy.Running economy can be defined by the V O2 (in ml O2.kg-1.min-1) of running at a certain speed, and is.usually expressed by the energy cost (EC) of running a distance of one km (in ml.kg-1.km-1) calculated as V O2divided by the velocity. EC has been reported in triathletes within both the conditions of isolated running and‘triathlon running’ [14, 49, 66, 68, 105, 111-117]. It is generally reported that in trained OD triathletes, EC measured atthe end of the event is higher by 10% when compared to isolated run; e.g. 224 vs. 204 ml.kg-1.km-1 [115]; 224vs. 207 ml.kg-1.km-1 [111]. It has also been reported that the extent of any change in EC subsequent to anexhaustive cycling bout is influenced by athlete performance level, event distance, gender, and age. The effectof a fatiguing cycling bout on the subsequent running energy cost was different between elite (-3.7 4.8%,when compared to an isolated run) and middle-level (2.3 4.6%) triathletes [116]. Elite LD triathletes hadslightly (but not significantly) lower EC than OD triathletes (163.8 vs. 172.9 and 163.0 vs. 177.4 ml kg–1.km–1during an isolated and a ‘triathlon’ run, respectively) [14]. Surprisingly, no difference has been observed in ECbetween elite junior and senior triathletes, whether male or female, during an isolated run and a ‘triathlon’ run(173-185 ml.kg-1.km-1) [105]. However, the increase in EC subsequent to cycling was higher in juniors than inseniors in females (5.8 vs. -1.6%), but not in males (3.1 vs. 2.6%) [105].The mechanisms underlying the deterioration in economy in the ‘triathlon run’ when compared to isolated run.are various : both reported changes in the ventilatory pattern [86] leading to a higher V O2 of the respiratorymuscles [116, 118], and neuromuscular alterations reducing the efficiency of the stretch-shortening-cycle [113, 116,119] have been proposed. Some metabolic factors such as shift in circulating fluids, hypovolaemia and increasein body temperature have also been suggested [111, 114, 115]. Of interest are the studies of Hausswirth et al. [112114], comparing EC at the end of OD triathlon and at the end of a marathon of similar duration: EC was moreviii 2011 ISSUE 2 VOLUME 6 2011 University of Alicante
Millet et al.JOURNAL OF HUMAN SPORT & EXERCISEincreased during marathon ( 11.7%) than during OD triathlon ( 3.2%) running when compared to an 45-minisolated run. The differences are due mainly to higher decrease in body weight related to fluid losses, a largerincrease in core temperature during the long run and significant mechanical alterations during the long runwhen compared to the running part of a triathlon.Interestingly, recent values of EC in World-level distance runners have been reported [120-122]: Jones [120]showed a continuous decrease in EC of Paula Radcliffe, the current world record holder for the Women’smarathon between 1992 ( 205 ml.kg–1.km–1) and 2003 ( 175 ml.kg–1.km–1) corresponding to a 15%.improvement whereas V O2max ( 70 ml.kg–1.min–1) and body mass ( 54 kg) remained unchanged over theperiod. Jones reported also that her EC was more recently measured at 165 ml.kg–1.km–1. Billat et al.[123, 124]reported higher values in elite female Portuguese and French (196 17 ml.kg–1.km–1) [124] or Kenyan (208 17ml.kg–1.km–1) [123] distance runners. Overall, this compares favourably with values obtained for elite femaletriathletes : Millet and Bentley [105] reported, for nine elite females (including one LD world champion, second atthe Hawaii Ironman and five European medallists) an average value of 176.4 ml.kg–1.km–1, whereas the.average V O2max was 61.0 ml.kg–1.min–1 for a body mass of 60.3 kg.In males, Lucia et al.[121, 122] reported a value of 150-153 ml.kg-1.km-1 in Zersenay Tadese, the current long.cross-country and half-marathon World champion for a V O2max of 83 ml-1.min-1.kg-1. The EC of Tadese islower (the lowest reported so far) than previously reported values in elite runners : 180 ml.kg–1.km–1 for SteveScott[125]; 203-214 ml.kg–1.km–1 in elite French and Portuguese[124] or Kenyan[123] runners; 190-192 ml.kg–1.km–1 in Elite East-African runners [121, 126]; 211 ml.kg–1.km–1 in Elite Spanish runners[121]. So, similarly tofemales, with the exception of Tadese, running economy in male distance runners does not appear to bebetter than the ones reported in elite triathletes : 174 9 and 164 8 ml.kg–1.km–1 for OD and LD triathletes,respectively[14]. However further investigation with Elite LD triathletes is required to confirm these results.Overall, from these data, it appears that the main difference in running performance between elite runners and.triathletes comes mainly from a higher body mass in triathletes (affecting proportional V O2max) rather fromdifferences in running economy. Since mean lower leg thickness and calf mass have been shown to be relatedto running economy[127], one may speculate that the higher body mass in triathletes comes mainly from theupper body muscles more and – probably – from the higher skinfold thicknesses that are associated withswimming.2.5. VO2 kineticsAs previously mentioned, in contrast to other endurance sports; i.e. running [128, 129] , cycling [129], rowing[130] or swimming [131] where VO2 kinetics has been well-investigated, only a few studies report VO2 kineticsparameters in triathletes.Faster kinetics; i.e. smaller constant time of the primary phase (τ1) , has been associated with improvedfatigue tolerance and performance in cycling, running or rowing [1, 130]. Caputo et al. [132] compared trainedtriathletes, cyclists and runners on both running and cycling maximal exercises. τ1 was similar betweentreadmill and cycle ergometer in runners (31.6 and 40.9 s); cyclists (28.5and 32.7 s) and triathletes (32.5 and40.7 s). Despite the fact that these authors concluded that VO2 kinetics was not dependent on the exercisemode and specificity of training as in previous studies [133], one may observe that the triathletes responseswere similar to the ones of the runners, for whom the difference between cycling and running was larger thanin cyclists.It seems that in trained subject, acceleration of the VO2 adjustments at the onset of heavy exercise afterendurance training is not always observed, in opposition to untrained subjects. For example, Millet et al. [134]did not report that in a group of already well-trained triathletes, training induces a faster constant time of theprimary phase. However, they reported in the seven subjects with the lowest VO2max ( 64 mL·min·kg), that τ1decreased from 21 to 14 s.VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 2011 ix
Millet et al.JOURNAL OF HUMAN SPORT & EXERCISEComparing the VO2 kinetics parameters between OD and LD triathletes (in addition to running EC and cyclinganaerobic capacity) appears as the first priority to characterize the training adaptations and betterunderstanding the determinants of performance with a “modern” scientific perspective.3. Injury Differences in OD and LD triathletesIt may, however, have implications for the incidence and or severity of overuse injury in these groups. In apreliminary retrospective study, Vleck et al [21] found the number of overuse injuries sustained over a five-yearperiod did not differ between OD and LD triathletes. However, the proportions of OD and LD athletes whowere affected by injury to particular anatomical sites did (p 0.05). For example, a greater proportion of ODthan LD males sustained Achilles tendon injury (p 0.05). In addition more of the total number of overuseinjuries that were sustained by OD athletes occurred to the lower back (17.9%), Achilles tendon (14.3%) andknees (14.2%), whilst most of the injuries that were reported by IR athletes were to the knees (44%), calf(20%), hamstrings (20%) and lower back (20%). Moreover, less OD athletes (16.7% vs. 36.8%, p 0.05)reported their injury to recur. Although OD sustained less running injuries than LD (1.6 0.5 vs. 1.9 0.3,p 0.05), more subsequently stopped running (41.7% vs. 15.8%), and for longer (33.5 43.0 vs. 16.7 16.6days, p 0.01). In OD, the number of overuse injuries sustained inversely correlated with percentage trainingtime, and number of sessions, doing bike hill repetitions (r - 0.44 and - 0.39, respectively, both p 0.05). LDoveruse injury number correlated with the amount of intensive sessions done (r 0.67, p 0.01 and r 0.56,p 0.05 for duration of 'speed' run and 'speed bike' sessions). It is important, therefore, that coaches note thatthe physiological and training differences between OD and LD triathletes may lead to their exhibitingdifferential risk for injury to specific anatomical sites.ConclusionAfter 30 years of scientific investigation, we can conclude that only the “traditional / old-fashion” physiologicalparameters (VO2max, anaerobic threshold) have been measured and analysed at a large scale. Only few dataare available for running EC or cycling efficiency in triathletes. Almost nothing has been published on anaerobiccapacity in cycling or VO2 kinetics. Very little is known regarding training content. Research regarding both theextent of, and the risk factors for, injury in LD and OD triathletes, is very much in its infancy.The International Triathlon Union can be proactive in initiating a longitudinal assessment of elite triathletes. Itwill obviously help coaches and scientists. It might also complement the data collected in the “blood/biologicalpassport” and be at the start of a “physiological passport”.x 2011 ISSUE 2 VOLUME 6 2011 University of Alicante
Millet et al.JOURNAL OF HUMAN SPORT & EXERCISETable 4 . Studies that have assessed maximal oxygen uptake for cycling and running in OD and LD triathletes 72][73]ODODLDOD[74]OD[75][76]ODODN9M13 M8M6F5F1F6M2M8F10 M11 M10 M9M14 M11 M4M8 M, 6 F10 M10 M10 M7F16 M7M7M7M18 M7FLevel/ DetailsExperiencedCompetitiveSer. amateur (SA)World-Class (WC)WC subgroupSA subgroupSA subgroupWC subgroupHighly trainedNot clearTop 200None givenCompetitiveNot clear‘Elite’(I, Feb.)(II, Feb 6-8 wks)(III, 6-8 wks)(IV, Sept., race)Highly trainedCompetitiveNot clearRecreationalNot clearCompetitiveCompetitiveAge(yrs)Mass(kg)29.5 4.830.5 8.831.3 5.669.8 5.674.7 1060.3 4.630.5 8.831.3 5.674.7 10.058.8 5.731.4 5.974.5 7.631.4 1.874.5 2.329.4 5.1M 55.3-56.4F 69.9-71.327.6 6.324 327.7 1.328.3 2.372 5.475 1076.2 2.159.3 2.1Rel. VO2maxbike(ml.kg-1min-1)56.357.9 5.6*66.7 10.161.6 767.0 7.760.666.1 9.277.0 10.066.7 10.164.0 8.956.964.364.3 8.543.6 8.163.2 0.153.4 1.5*55.5 1.5*54.2 1.5*56.0 1.3*70.3 6*62.9 3.860.8 1.448.2 3.856.5 8.560.5 6.2MW51.9 3.9HW66.4 151.1 260.1 1.5VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 2011 xiAbs. V02maxbike(L.min-1)4.7 0.34.6 0.54.814.7 0.45.1*2.9 0.3Rel. VO2maxrun(ml.kg-1min-1)57.660.5 5.7*68.8 10.465.9 8.161.0 8.564.663.9 9.275.1 10.068.8 10.468.1 9.461.067.268.1 11.949.7 7.565.3 1.357.4 1.457.89 1.557.2 1.558.4 1.475.4 7.3*67.0 4.261.6 1.150.7 2.662.0 8.469.9 5.5 MW55.6 4.1HW66.1 7.951.4 1.363.7 1.6Abs V02max run(L.min-1)5.1 0.93.9 0.44.8 0.34.9 0.84.8 0.14.8 0.45.4 0.6*3.1 0.23.1 0.14.8 0.1
Millet et al.ReferenceJOURNAL OF HUMAN SPORT & D12 M12 M13 M10 M13 M8M4 M, 4 F[51]OD8Mxii9M8M14 M10 M7F7F6F6F6F5M6M17 M7M9M8M8M4 M, 2 F6M4 M, 2 F14 M, 2 F29 M6M5M5F5 M, 5 F8M 2011 ISSUE 2 VOLUME 6Level/ DetailsAge(yrs)Mass(kg)Amateur27.4 5.778.4 810 wks R10 wks C10 wks C RCompetitive20.3 0.920.5 1.021.3 0.658.2 3.361.6 3.662.4 l Squad26.5 8.220.8 2.962.8 5.169.7 4.527.3 6.826 10.321.3 1.624.3 7.521.0 2.422.2 520.9 2.621.8 2.423 425 765.4 5.860.8 3.265.7 5.672.5 3.764.8 13.867.7 9.168 7.869.9 7.372.1 4.759.3 5.824.0 3.022 271.1 6.560.7 1028.9 7.473.3 6.0CompetitiveElite SeniorGood levelMiddle-levelUniversity teamCompetitiveUniversity teamPreparat. trainingSpecific trainingPre-competitionRel. VO2maxbike(ml.kg-1min-1)57.9 4.567.1 2.658.5 6.861.3 10.154.3 3.663.2 3.960.8 3.061.1 8.165.4 4.270 4.867.8 6.1#54.9 3.8#64.6 2.6*71.2 3.9*61.7 5*65.8 4.8*69.1 7.275.9
physiological tests in cycling and running may be influenced by the athlete's original training background. By comparing physiological variables as maximal oxygen consumption (O 2max), anaerobic threshold (AT), heart rate, economy or delta efficiency measured in cycling and running in triathletes, we aimed to identify the
The British Triathlon Federation (British Triathlon) is affiliated to World Triathlon and, as such, World Triathlon rules are applicable to all international events either hosted by the British Triathlon or its constituent Home Nation Associations, at which Home Nation Association members compete (e.g., European and World Championships).
1. ITU Level 1 Triathlon Coach 2. ITU Level 2 Triathlon Coach 3. ITU Performance Development Triathlon Coach (L2 Extension Programme - invitation only) ITU Coach Education Programmes - Level Descriptors ITU Level 1 Triathlon Coach ITU Level 1 coaches will be able to deliver triathlon sessions to groups of triathletes without supervision.
Millet GP, Vleck VE, Bentley DJ. Physiological requirements in triathlon.J. Hum. Sport Exerc. Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 184-204, 2011 This article aims to present the current knowledge on physiological requirements in Olympic . distance and Ironman triathlon. Showing the data available from a "traditional point of view" (aerobic power,
Triathlon Canada may use substitutions to align with the priority selections as per the attached schedules. This substitution may be used in the following cases but is not limited to: 1. To prioritize an athlete with a better World Triathlon Individual Olympic Ranking (for Olympic
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table of contents introduction to alberta postpartum and newborn clinical pathways 6 acknowledgements 7 postpartum clinical pathway 8 introduction 9 physiological health: vital signs 12 physiological health: pain 15 physiological health: lochia 18 physiological health: perineum 19 physiological health: abdominal incision 20 physiological health: rh factor 21 physiological health: breasts 22
