SAMUDRA Monograph Climate Change And Fisheries .
eat SFim SCl ngeaChSAMUDRA MonographClimate Change and Fisheries:Perspectives from Small-scaleFishing Communities in Indiaon Measures to Protect Life andLivelihoodVenkatesh SalagramaInternational Collective in Support of Fishworkerswww.icsf.net
About the AuthorVenkatesh Salagrama (vsalagrama@gmail.com) has beenworking in fisheries for over 20 years now, the first nine yearswith the Bay of Bengal Programme of the FAO (FAO-BOBP)and latterly as an independent consultant. His area of interest/work is small-scale fisheries and livelihoods. Within thisbroad area, he has worked for a wide range of national andinternational agencies on diverse topics such as post-harvestissues and marketing, trade, fisheries management, and livelihoodenhancement and diversification.AcknowledgementsICSF would like to acknowledge the support of the HeinrichBöll Foundation (HBF) towards the conduct of this study.Headquartered in Berlin and with about 28 international offices,HBF conducts and supports civic educational activities andprojects worldwide. For more, please visit http://in.boell.orgGrateful acknowledgements also to the Norwegian Agencyfor Development Co-operation (Norad), the Swedish Societyfor Nature Conservation, and Misereor for supporting theprogrammes of ICSF related to climate change and other issues.This study commenced in 2011 and was initially undertaken byFahmeeda Hanfee, an independent researcher. ICSF would liketo thank her for launching the project and undertakingpreliminary field visits in Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.
SAMUDRA MonographClimate Change and Fisheries:Perspectives from Small-scaleFishing Communities in Indiaon Measures to Protect Life andLivelihoodVenkatesh SalagramaInternational Collective in Support of Fishworkerswww.icsf.net
SAMUDRA MonographClimate Change and Fisheries: Perspectives from Small-scale FishingCommunities in India on Measures to Protect Life and LivelihoodWritten byVenkatesh SalagramaMay 2012Edited byKG KumarLayout byP SivasakthivelCoverFisherfolk houses, Cuff Parade, Mumbai, IndiaPhoto byShuddhawati Peke/ICSFPrinted atL.S. Graphic Prints, 25 Swamy Naicken Street,Chindhadripet, Chennai 600 002Published byInternational Collective in Support of Fishworkers27 College Road, Chennai 600 006, IndiaTel: 91 44 2827 5303 Fax: 91 44 2825 4457Email: icsf@icsf.netwww.icsf.netIn collaboration withHeinrich Böll Stiftung - IndiaC-20, First Floor, Qutub Institutional AreaNew Delhi 110016, IndiaTel: 91-11-2685 4405 Fax: 91-11-2651 6695Email: in-info@in.boell.orghttp://in.boell.orgCopyright ICSF and HBF 2012ISBN 978 93 80802 06 0While ICSF reserves all rights for this publication, any portion of it may be freely copiedand distributed, provided appropriate credit is given. Any commercial use of this materialis prohibited without prior permission. ICSF would appreciate receiving a copy of anypublication that uses this publication as a source.The opinions and positions expressed in this publication are those of the authorsconcerned and do not necessarily represent the official views of ICSF.
ContentsAcronyms and Abbreviations.vAuthor's Acknowledgements .viiExecutive Summary .ix1.Introduction .12.Objectives of the Study.13.Methodology .24.Study Locations .35.General Context of Fisheries in India .46.Fishers’ Perceptions about Climate Change and Fisheries .67.Key Climate-change Factors Affecting Fisheries .78.Probable Causes of Climate-change Issues Affecting Fisheries .169.Consequences of the Changes upon the Lives andLivelihoods of Fishers .21Adaptation or Mitigation Measures (Coping Strategies)Undertaken by the Fishers to Address the Changes .32Conclusion: The Viability and Sustainability of theCoping Strategies in Place .43Measures to Protect Lives and Livelihoods of Small-scale FishingCommunities in the Context of Climate Change: Suggestions fromthe Fishers.4710.11.12.Endnotes.52
List of BoxesSudden Rains .10Localized Disasters .12Vembanad Lake, Kerala.14Migrants into Fishing: Twice Damned by Climate Change? .36PFZ Information as a Guide for Good Fishing Areas .38MapMap of Study Locations .53
SAMUDRA MonographAcronyms and AbbreviationsAIGalternative income generationCCPMSclimate change preparedness and mitigation strategyCCRFCode of Conduct for Responsible FisheriesCESSCentre for Earth Science StudiesCIFECentral Institute of Fisheries EducationCIFRICentral Inland Fisheries Research InstituteCIFTCentral Institute of Fisheries TechnologyCMFRICentral Marine Fisheries Research InstituteCRZcoastal regulation zoneCVIcoastal vulnerability indexCSOcivil society organizationDATdistress alert transmitterDOFDepartment of FisheriesFISHMARCFisheries Management Resource CentreFRLfull reservoir levelFRPfibre-reinforced plasticGHGgreenhouse gasGPSglobal positioning systemHACCPhazard analysis critical control pointsHPhorsepowerHSDhigh-speed dieselIBEinboard engineICARIndian Council of Agricultural ResearchICZMPintegrated coastal zone management programmeINCCAIndian Network for Climate Change AssessmentIRTCIntegrated Rural Technology CentreKSMTFKerala Swatantra Matsya Tozhilali FederationvCLIMATE CHANGE AND FISHERIES
SAMUDRA MonographLPGliquefied petroleum gasMFRAMarine Fishing Regulation ActMGNREGSMahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment GuaranteeSchemeMLAMember of Legislative AssemblyMMKSMaharashtra Macchimar Kruti SamitiMOEFMinistry of Environment and ForestsMSSRFM.S. Swaminathan Research FoundationNAPCCNational Action Plan on Climate ChangeNCDCNational Co-operative Development CorporationNFFNational Fishworkers’ ForumNICRANational Initiative on Climate Resilient AgricultureOBMoutboard motorPFZpotential fishing zonePPTparts per thousandPRIpanchayati raj institutionSAPCCState Level Strategy and Action PlanSDBSundarban Development BoardSETTDSocio Economic Evaluation and Technology Transfer DivisionSEZspecial economic zoneSIFFSSouth Indian Federation of Fishermen SocietiesSIFTState Institute of Fisheries TechnologyUNFCCCUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeVATvalue-added taxCLIMATE CHANGE AND FISHERIESvi
SAMUDRA MonographAUTHOR'S ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis study is the outcome of a team effort, and the author gratefully acknowledgesthe excellent assistance received from the following individuals in planning, coordination, and implementation of the field studies: In Andhra Pradesh: M Srirama Murthy, Arjilli Dasu andB L Narasimha Raju In Maharashtra: Moreshwar Vaithy, Ujjwala Patil and Purnima Meher In West Bengal: Dipankar Saha In Kerala: Sajith SukumaranSpecial thanks are due to S Bhaskara Sarma for his extensive contributions tothe development, field testing and revision of the field-study methodology, aswell as for undertaking the field work and the validation exercises in AndhraPradesh and Kerala.Grateful acknowledgement is made to the timely help and advicereceived from R Narayana Kumar, Head of Division, SEETTD, CMFRI;R Ramasubramanian of MSSRF, Kakinada; and K Vijayakumaran, DirectorGeneral, Fishery Survey of India, who ensured the study remained on track.Thanks are also due to a number of other individuals and institutions in the fourStates covered.In Andhra Pradesh: Surada Nageswararao; Nakka Ammoriyya; BalasadiRangarao; K Hema Sundareswara Rao; G Ravi and Karri Kondamma;T Rajya Lakshmi; S S H Razvi and his team at CIFE, Kakinada; and V Suresh andhis team at SIFT, Kakinada.In Kerala: K V Thomas, Centre for Earth Science Studies (CESS),Thiruvananthapuram; B K Jaya Prasad, CESS; A J Vijayan and Nalini Nayakof Protsahan; Ansalam A. John of SIFFS; P Asokan of Arattupuzha; Johnson ofAndhakaranazhi; U R Girish of Alappuzha; Jackson Pollayil; Lal Koiparambil;T J Anjelose; A K Mathew, Coordinator (Livelihoods), IRTC, Palakkad;P. Prakash of FishMARC; Girish and Anoop, District Mission Coordinators,Theeramythri Project; Jackson Pollayil, Kumbalam Rajappan of KSMTF andfishermen of Arattupuzha and Andhakaranazhi, Kerala.viiCLIMATE CHANGE AND FISHERIES
SAMUDRA MonographIn Maharashtra: Rajesh Mangela; Pankaj Bhave; Rambhau Patil; Narendra Patil;Joju Dhaki; Rajan Meher; Moreshwar Vaithy; Ujjwala Patil; Purnima Meher;Pankaj Bhave; and V V Singh and his climate-change study team at CMFRI,Mumbai. The assistance provided by the members of the MaharashtraMachimaar Kruthi Samithi and the National Fishworkers’ Forum (NFF) is gratefullyacknowledged, so too the hospitality provided by the Chairman and membersof the Satpaty Machhimar Vividh Karyakari Sahhakari Society Limited, DistrictThane, Maharashtra which hosted the final consultative workshop and The ArnalaFishermen’s Sarvodaya Sahakari Society Limited, District Thane; The SatpatiFishermen’s Sarvodaya Sahakari Society limited, District Thane; Vasai MachhimarSarvodaya Sahakari Sanstha Maryadit, District Thane; Gorai Machhimar SahakariSanstha Limited, Mumbai; Naigaon Machhimar Sahakari Society limited, Mumbai;and Colaba Machhimar Sarvodaya Sahakari Society, Mumbai.In West Bengal: Pradip Chatterjee, Secretary of NFF; Aninda Ghosh of theSundarbans Development Board; N J Maitra and Prasantha Chatterjee ofR K Ashram; K V K Nimpith; Milon Sinha; Joykrishna Haldar, former MLAof Kultuli; Tejendralal Das of Kakdwip Fishermen Association; Saikat Pal ofPrasari; Kumud Ranjan Naskar (ex-CIFRI); B K Mahapatra; Gobinda Das,Secretary, Sundarban Matsyajibi Joutha Sangram Committee, Canning, WestBengal; Shyamal Mandal of Jharkhali, Sundarbans; and Munil Kumar of CIFE,Kolkata.Thanks also to E Vivekanandan; R Ramesh; Rajesh Rangarajan; Sujatha Byravan;Purvaja Ramachandran; Kavikumar; Shriji Kurup; Paul Pandian; John Kurien;Ahana Lakshmi; C M Muralidharan; V Vivekanandan; and Sanjay Vasisht,for their participation in the scoping workshop held in Chennai during9-10 February 2011.Also: Satheesh C Shenoi, Director, Indian National Centre for OceanInformation Services (INCOIS); R S Mahendra (INCOIS) for providing coastalvulnerability index maps and information on sea-level rise; K Nageswara Rao,Department of Geo-engineering, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, forproviding information on the sea-level rise scenario along the Andhra Pradeshcoast; Ramgopal Rao, Additional Director of Fisheries, Government of AndhraPradesh, for providing information on climate-change preparedness by theDepartment of Fisheries; and R Jaganathan, Associate Professor and Head,Department of Geography, University of Madras, Chennai, and his students formaking thematic maps based on socioeconomic data on housing and literacy.Finally, the author wishes to thank the fishermen and fisherwomen of all thevillages covered during this study for their patience, encouragement and candidinteractions.CLIMATE CHANGE AND FISHERIESviii
SAMUDRA MonographEXECUTIVE SUMMARYThe study on “Climate Change and Fisheries: Perspectives from Small-scaleFishing Communities in India on Measures to Protect Life and Livelihood” hasbeen undertaken by the International Collective in Support of Fishworkers (ICSF)with the following objectives: assess perceptions of fishing communities about the impact of climatevariability/change on their lives and livelihoods; assess knowledge, institutions and practices of fishing communities ofrelevance to climate-change preparedness; identify adaptation and mitigation measures that may need to be adopted byfishing communities and the State in relation to climate change; and propose measures to protect the lives and livelihoods of small-scale fishingcommunities in the context of climate-change policies and programmes atdifferent levels.The study involved consultations with key fisheries-based stakeholders in selectedlocations in four States of India (Maharashtra and Kerala on the west coast,and West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh on the east coast). The methodology waspiloted in April 2011 in Maharashtra. It was subsequently refined, and detailedconsultations were undertaken in all four locations during July-August 2011. Thisreport presents the key findings from the field interactions.The study finds growing evidence that, in the perception of fishing communities,climate change has been influencing the viability of fishing operations, requiringfishers to take a wide range of adaptive and mitigation measures. However, climatechange needs to be understood as adding a new dimension to the crisis already facedin the fisheries sector; field interactions indicate that climate change follows upon,aggravates, and is, in turn, aggravated by the larger processes affecting fisheries,and hence cannot be viewed as a standalone entity. It is also quite clear that whileclimate change is a global process, it is aggravated by local processes and practices,which means that efforts to address it must cover a range of activities from theglobal level down to that of the individual fisher in a remote fishing community.As such, the efforts to address climate change must encompass a wider range ofactivities, extending beyond those directly focusing on climate change alone, andixCLIMATE CHANGE AND FISHERIES
SAMUDRA Monographconcentrating also on enhancing the overall resilience and adaptive capacities offishing communities.The key areas relating to climate change that have an impact upon the lives andlivelihoods of fishers include: sea level sea-surface temperature sea-surface salinity wind patterns seasonality and seasonal patterns rainfall natural disasters waves and currents tidal action mud flows and turbidity shoreline changes (erosion and sedimentation)The factors contributing to changes in these areas are frequently mixed, originatingas much (often, more) from local processes as from global changes, and couldbe broadly categorized into natural (or global), fisheries and non-fisheries(external) factors. While fishers are frequently unable to understand or explainthe natural processes affecting the changing sea and environmental conditions,their understanding of the more immediate causes involving the fisheries andthe non-fisheries factors is quite good. Although the direct contribution of thefisheries sector to aggravating climate-change processes is considered to be low,there is evidence that some practices and processes within the sector could beexacerbating the impacts of climate change on the lives and livelihoods of fishers.These include: growing fishing fleet size, engine power and capacity; destructive and ecologically unsound fishing practices; and poor engine and fuel efficiencies.External (non-fisheries) factors are more significant in terms of aggravatingclimate-change-related processes, and include a range of processes relating to,among others, industries, nuclear/thermal power plants, tourism, defence, portsand shipping, agriculture and irrigation, mining, and urban development. Theirimpacts include: pollution; competition for coastal space and resources;CLIMATE CHANGE AND FISHERIESx
SAMUDRA Monograph shoreline changes; and destruction of fish habitats and sensitive ecosystems. Increasing population, both within and outside the fishing communities,is said to put extra pressure on the resources, and further aggravate theclimate-change processes and their impacts.The impacts of the climate-change processes—which are frequently mixed up withthose of a number of other factors in the fisheries sector—are felt by differentfisheries stakeholders in the following areas: access to, and availability of, fish and other coastal resources (such asmangroves); fishing systems and conditions; terms of access to fishing grounds; fishing investments and returns; access to markets and terms of fish trade; quality of life; sea-safety concerns; traditional knowledge, practices and governance systems; and domestic economies.The changed overall context contributes to increasing uncertainty and fluctuatingincomes, which lead to contrasting responses on the east and west coasts. On theeast coast (Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal), the fishers tend to fish less anddiversify into several activities, ranging from working as fishing crew in other(west-coast) States to unskilled, low-paying, non-fisheries occupations within, andbeyond, their area. On the west coast, the increasing uncertainty leads to a strategyto survive by fishing, for example, by investing more in the activity in order to gofarther out into the sea and catch more fish. For the immediate future, this strategymay appear to be successful, but the long-term implications remain uncertain.The impacts of climate change and related processes on women in fisheries areperceived to be significant on both sides of the coast, marginalizing women fromtheir traditional occupations and increasing their burden by requiring them to earnmore for household incomes.In the face of the challenges affecting their livelihoods, the fishing communitiesare seen to be undertaking a range of adaptive and mitigation measures, not allof which are successful and some of which may even aggravate their overallcondition as well as the climate-change processes. Some of the fisheries-relatedcoping strategies adapted by the fishers to cope with the stresses they have beenxiCLIMATE CHANGE AND FISHERIES
SAMUDRA Monographfacing (including the impacts induced by climate change) relate to: diversification in terms of targeted fish and fishing grounds; changes to fishing duration and fishing systems (in terms of boat sizes andonboard equipment, fishing gears, techniques and engine efficiencies); usage of migrant workers and technological innovations, alongside othercost-saving measures; and changing ownership and sharing patterns.At the household level, occupational diversification is on the rise, while there areconscious efforts to educate the younger generation to give them an option tomove out of the fisheries.Currently, the level of institutional responses to climate-change impacts onfisheries is still in the early stages, and focused on technical aspects; the human andsocioeconomic implications of the various changes are yet to be fully understood.Though the coast and coastal communities—coastal fishing communities, inparticular—are widely regarded as among the most impacted by climate change,there is no specific focus in the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)on the coastal ecosystem or on coastal communities. None of the eight missionsset up under the NAPCC rela
SAMUDRA Monograph CLIMATE CHANGE AND FISHERIES vi LPG liquefi ed petroleum gas MFRA Marine Fishing Regulation Act MGNREGS Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme MLA Member of Legislative Assembly MMKS Maharashtra Macchimar Kruti Samiti MOEF Ministry of Environment and Forests MSSRF M.
Food Security and Nutrition 1.1.Climate Change and Agriculture Climate change shows in different transformations of climate variables that are causing significant economic, social and environmental effects. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in 2002, has defined climate change as “any change in climate over time,
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