“The Art And Craft Of The Machine”
“The Art and Craft of the Machine”:3D Printing, the Arts and Crafts Movement and the Democratization of ArtLassi PatokorpiUniversity of TampereSchool of Language, Translation and Literary StudiesEnglish PhilologyMA ThesisApril 2014
Tampereen yliopistoKieli-, käännös- ja kirjallisuustieteiden yksikköEnglantilainen filologiaPATOKORPI, LASSI: “The Art and Craft of the Machine”: 3D Printing, the Arts and CraftsMovement and the Democratization of ArtPro gradu -tutkielma, 75 sivuaHuhtikuu 20141800-luvun lopulla Englannissa syntynyt Arts and Crafts -liike halusi tehdä taiteesta jatuotannosta demokraattisempaa. Liikkeen merkittävin edustaja oli runoilija, käsityöläinen jasosialisti William Morris. Nykypäivänä avoimen lähdekoodin filosofia ja vertaistuotantotavatyhdistettynä 3D-tulostusteknologiaan edustavat samankaltaista filosofiaa tuotannondemokratisoinnista kuin Arts and Crafts -liike 1800-luvulla. 3D-tulostus on uusi teknologia,jolla tietokonemalleista voidaan helposti luoda fyysisiä kappaleita. Arts and Crafts -liikevastusti konetyötä, joten kysymys koneen roolista taiteen tuhoajana ja taiteen pelastajana1800-luvun lopulta nykypäivään on tutkimuksessani keskeinen.Tutkin Arts and Crafts -liikettä erityisesti sen isähahmon William Morrisin luentojen pohjaltamutta pohdin myös muiden ajattelijoiden tekstejä. 3D-tulostuksen ollessa vielä hyvin uusiteknologia pohjaan tutkimukseni siitä akateemisten artikkelien ohella myösuutisartikkeleihin, populäärikirjallisuuteen, videoituihin luentoihin sekä itse tekemiinihaastatteluihin. Vertaistuotantoa sekä avointa lähdekoodia käsittelevät jaksot perustuvatakateemiseen kirjallisuuteen. Tutkimukseni on kulttuurikritiikkiä ja sovellan siinä vertailevaaanalyysiä.Arts and Crafts -liikettä, 3D-tulostusta ja siihen liittyviä filosofioita yhdistävät halu tuodatavaratuotanto lähemmäksi tavallista ihmistä. Niitä yhdistävät myös ajatukset vapaastayhteistoiminnasta, laadun tavoittelusta voittojen sijaan sekä eräänlainen sosialismi. Uudenteknologian myötä tulevaisuudessa saattaa ilmetä kehitystä Arts and Crafts -liikkeentoivomaan suuntaan. Taiteen, käsityön ja konetyön käsitteet ovat jatkuvassa muutoksessa.Lewis Mumfordin käsitteiden pohjalta voidaan väittää, että koneen rooli taiteen tuhoajana taipelastajana on riippuvainen koneen käyttäjän ideologiasta tai filosofiasta.avainsanat: William Morris, Arts and Crafts -liike, 3D-tulostus, taiteen demokratisaatio,vertaistuotanto
Table of Contents1. Introduction . 12. Methodology . 33. Historical Background . 43.1. William Morris . 43.2. The Arts and Crafts Movement . 64. Contemporary Developments . 94.1. 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing . 94.2. Open Source and Peer Production . 125. The Democratization of Art in the 19th Century . 145.1. Morris’s Definition of Art . 145.2. Ruskin on the Social Nature of Art . 185.3. Art of the People . 216. The Democratization of Art in the 21st Century . 256.1. Peer Production and the Logic of the Artist . 256.2. Socialism of the 21st Century . 286.3. Co-operative Individuality and the Workshop Ideal . 316.4. Production of Material Goods . 336.5. 3D Printing Revolution. 356.6. Ecological Considerations and the Value of Commodities . 396.7. 3D Printing as Democratization . 437. Craftsmanship and the Machine in a Post-Industrial World . 507.1. The Opposition and the Compromise . 517.2. Lewis Mumford’s Criticism of Technology . 567.3. Criticism of the Capitalist System . 597.4. Handcrafts versus the Machine . 637.5. Digital Handcrafts as Art . 658. Conclusion . 73Works Cited
11. IntroductionIn 1901, the American architect Frank Lloyd Wright delivered an address called “The Art andCraft of the Machine” to the Chicago Arts and Crafts Society. In his address Wright talksabout William Morris and his opposition to the machine in the creation of art and how itplayed a crucial role in the destruction of the arts. But instead of taking Morris’s side, Wrightproposes that the machine, instead of destroying the arts, could in fact democratize them:“Nor was it so grown as to become apparent to William Morris, the grand democrat, that themachine was the great forerunner of democracy” (Wright 2000 [1901], 202). On the onehand, the machine is seen as the destroyer of art, and on the other hand, as the saviour of art.The above-mentioned duality, whether real or perceived, of the machine is central to mydiscussion of the matter, and so I have decided to pay homage to Wright’s polemic address inthe title of this MA thesis.Nearly three decades later, the American philosopher Lewis Mumford describes theambivalent role of machines in the creation of art as follows:Was the displacement of art that marked the introduction of machinery a permanent ora temporary process? It was impossible to answer this question in John Ruskin’s time;but by now I think we may say confidently that the process was only a temporary one.While those who value the traditional arts are chiefly conscious of the loss, we arenow also conscious of the fact that industrialism has produced new arts, associatedwith the application of precise methods and machine tools. Will these new industrialarts altogether replace the traditional ones? Will the traditional arts recover some oftheir lost ground? Has the machine age developed a new esthetic, or is its biasessentially anti-esthetic? Will the expression of the human personality through the artsregain its ancient place and will art once more accompany all human activity? Theseare some of the questions we must ask. (Mumford 1928, 102)The above passage is from a newspaper article titled “Art in the Machine Age” written byMumford for The Saturday Review of Literature. Toward the end of the passage Mumfordputs forward a number of compelling questions that feel uncannily relevant in 2014. Of
2special interest is the sentence in which he questions whether the human personality will,with the emergence of the machine age, find anew its expression in art and whether art will“once more accompany all human activity” (Mumford 1928, 102).The industrial era revolutionized society, manufacture and art. The days of old, whenpeople lived in intimate communities in the countryside, when carpentry was a thriving tradeand people would make a large part of their own things were over. Are those days nowcoming back? The Arts and Crafts Movement of the late 1800s, inspired by William Morrisand John Ruskin, strove to make art popular, as it had been in the Middle Ages, and create anew, more beautiful world. Its ideas were aesthetic, democratic and socialist. The Movementhad a great influence, which was most distinctly visible in Germany in the 1920s, but in spiteof its influence all of the attempts to create a new popular art that would be widely shared bythe people failed. It is my claim that today in the 21st century, new technologies such as 3Dprinting and revolutionary ideas like Open Source have created a new set of circumstancesthat might finally bring us closer to achieving the dreams of William Morris and theMovement he inspired.In this thesis I am going to study the ideas of the Arts and Crafts Movement. Morespecifically I will study its ideas of the democratization of art, and attempt to point outsimilarities and differences that are apparent in the newly emerging 3D printing scene. I willultimately attempt to uncover a possible philosophical or ideological kinship between theideas behind these two historically distant and superficially very dissimilar phenomena. Thesecond half of the thesis will be an analysis of the ambivalent role of the machine and how itrelates to handcraft. The Arts and Crafts Movement had an adversarial view of the machineand yet the machine is the prerequisite for 3D printing.
32. MethodologyThis study falls within cultural criticism, applying comparative analysis based on a widerange of materials. I will study the Arts and Crafts Movement through the texts of a numberof its affiliates, but the main emphasis will be laid on the lectures of William Morris. I amaware that William Morris is generally not viewed as being integrally part of the Arts andCrafts Movement but rather as a progenitor of the Movement along with John Ruskin. For thepurposes of this thesis, however, a convincing argument in favour of including WilliamMorris and John Ruskin into the Arts and Crafts Movement can be made. In spite of the factthat the historical movement was headed by a younger generation than Morris and Ruskinthemselves and that they were not essential constituents of the Movement, the philosophy orideology that the Movement expressed was to a very large extent formulated by Morris andRuskin. This, in my opinion, justifies their incorporation into the Arts and Crafts Movement.The second part of my analysis will focus on 3D printing, open source and peerproduction. It will comprise very varied materials. Owing to the novelty of these phenomenaI will also be using a considerable amount of non-academic texts, such as newspaper articles,Internet videos and some unpublished materials, including interviews conducted by myself.The thesis at hand is among the first academic attempts at tackling the cultural and historicalsignificance of 3D printing.I also have personal experience with peer production and 3D art. Between 2004 and2009, I was creating computer graphics for different computer games such as Half-Life andCounter-Strike which had a very active “modding” (that is, modification) community behindthem. I was active in peer production communities such as the Clan of the Dead Goat whichproduced open source content for computer games such as Counter-Strike.
43. Historical BackgroundWilliam Morris and John Ruskin were the two chief influences behind the subsequentgenerations of artists and architects in England. Therefore, in subsection 3.1, it is important toshine a light on the 19th-century context they were writing in. In subsection 3.2 I will explainthe Arts and Crafts Movement of the 1880s that sets the stage for later developments in thisfield of human endeavour.3.1. William MorrisWilliam Morris (1834–1896) was a powerful figure in the realm of art and politics in the lateVictorian era. His work and teachings had an enormous impact on contemporary artists whofelt that decorative art had fallen asunder in the industrialized Victorian England. Morris’sthinking was deeply grounded in Romantic ideas. Nostalgia, nature and democracy areclearly visible in his lectures, widely disseminated to a larger audience. Morris’s thinking isalso deeply indebted to the renowned art critic of the time, John Ruskin, whom Morrisadmired greatly. Morris was a typical Renaissance man, who did not limit himself to poetryand painting but also practiced numerous different craft skills. Consequently, one of Morris’smost passionate aims was the restoration of the crafts, “the lesser arts,” back into theirrightful place alongside the higher arts which he believed had been separated from each otherdue to a change in social structure. In essence it means that painters and sculptors hadbecome members of the upper class whereas the fletcher and the mason had becomemembers of the lower class (1882C).Morris was unsatisfied with the decorative art of his time which had been transformedwith the advent of the industrialization (2000 [1888], 171). Before the Industrial Revolutionthe production of everyday items was in the hands of craftsmen who did most if not all of thework by hand. These craftsmen were often incorporated in workshops or guilds, thus buildingon a long line of tradition that spanned from the Middle Ages to the present day. After the
5Industrial Revolution the manufacturing of wares had been relegated to factories, where anew industrial tradition of design had not yet been established. According to Pevsner (1991,45–46), industrial production was at this early stage mostly in the hands of manufacturerswho were uneducated in the arts. The industrial revolution was a subversive change thataffected the entire Western civilization. The most prominent discontent was voiced in themost industrially developed countries like England where new inventions such as the steamengine, the railway system and different labour saving machines were first put to use. Anestablished example of this discontent is Ned Ludd, the weaver who in the early 19th centuryshattered two knitting machines, and consequently gave the name to so-called Luddism,which in today’s usage refers to opposition to new technologies.English Romanticism, which can be seen as a reaction toward these changes insociety, was one of the most visible movements that spoke out against the disruption createdby the new world order. Advancements in rational thought and scientific practices, asembodied in the Enlightenment Movement, demystified natural phenomena and professed tosubstantiate human mastery over nature. Romanticism rebelled by drawing attention to thesublime, an inexplicable feeling often experienced in nature that is beyond rational thought,and the picturesque which was posited somewhere between beautiful and the sublime.Romanticism declared that sensibility was paramount to rationality. Romanticism held fast tothe belief that there were things that were not subject to scientific scrutiny and wereunattainable by rational thought. As noted above, William Morris’s own thinking was deeplygrounded in Romantic thought. The yearning nostalgia that marked so many of the Romanticpoets’ works, was also present in Morris’s reverence for the Middle Ages that served him as asource of inspiration for his ideas of workmanship and artistic freedom (1882C). Morris wasalso trained as a painter in the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood which is noted for being inspiredby the art of the Middle Ages, the art before Raphael, as the name suggests.
6The commercial atmosphere of the time also sparked vehement opposition.Capitalism, antagonized by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, had formed a symbiotic bondwith industrialization, leading to many maladies in Victorian England. Critics like Carlyle(1843), Ruskin (2004) and Morris (1883) all spoke of the adverse effects of capitalism andindustrialization. The commercial products that the industry created were of substandardquality to Morris and Ruskin, but they also criticized the factories and the machines insidethem for degrading men into mere flesh-and-bone machines – the repetitive and arduous toilthat men were subjected to in factories was not humane (Morris 1882D; Ruskin 2004, 24).The mechanization of work was not only destructive to decorative art but also to the humanmind and the human body.These circumstances of the Victorian society sparked in Morris the flame forrevolution. As Morris grew older he got more and more involved in politics, culminating inhis joining the Socialist League when he was 50 years old (Thompson 1959). Morris’s aim inpolitics was not only the amelioration of the conditions of the working classes, but also thereformation of art by reforming society (Stansky 1996, 123). Morris believed that the onlyway to reform society was by a socialist revolution that he hoped to be imminent (Boos 1986,491). In his novel, News from Nowhere, An Epoch of Rest (2004 [1890]), Morris envisageshis utopian dream of a socialist society where men and women have redefined the concept ofwork; no one is forced to work, but most choose to. In Morris’s utopian England money isnot used, people craft their own things and love is free. Furthermore, Morris’s News fromNowhere depicts a society where art is part of society.3.2. The Arts and Crafts MovementThe Arts and Crafts Movement emerged in the 1880s when students of decorative art,consisting mainly of designers, architects and craftsmen began convening for the purpose ofexchanging ideas (Greenstead 2005, 1). These creative individuals sought unity in the field of
7art which they felt was mistreated by the Royal Academy and the Royal Institute of BritishArchitects. The Arts and Crafts Movement felt these institutions were too exclusive becausetheir main concern was the professionalization of the fields of art and architecture,respectively. The Arts and Crafts Movement was inspired to a large extent by Morris, whoseaim to re-elevate the status of the lesser arts was also taken up by the Movement. The conceptof “The Unity of Art” (that does not separate lesser and higher art) necessitated that theprofessionalization of art, architecture and design was to be opposed (Stansky 1996, 120). Inline with Morris’s and Ruskin’s teaching that defined art as a product of each period’s socialsituation, the Arts and Crafts Movement felt that at the time the arts did not have a role insociety that it deserved. This was the case with the Art Workers Guild (Stansky 1996, 123). Iwill discuss this topic in greater length in section 5.The Arts and Crafts Movement was composed of many different groups that wereunited (at the very least) by their drawing inspiration from Morris’s thinking. The differentgroups sometimes expressed contrasting views on certain subjects, in politics for example,but they are generally considered to be very much alike in many other respects. The maingroups comprising the Movement are usually thought to be The Century Guild, The ArtWorkers Guild and the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, with the two first mentioned beingperhaps the most important.In general terms the Movement was less radical in its ideology when compared toMorris and his thirst for revolution, and its members were also somewhat more acceptingtowards machines than the other progenitor of their movement, John Ruskin. The CenturyGuild, and its most prominent character, Arthur H. Mackmurdo, recognized that thepropagation of good design was only possible with the help of machines (Stansky 1996, 70).The Arts and Crafts Movement, like the similarly motivated Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood(Prettejohn 2012, 37), emerged partly as a react
3.1. William Morris William Morris (1834–1896) was a powerful figure in the realm of art and politics in the late Victorian era. His work and teachings had an enormous impact on contemporary artists who felt that decorative art had fallen asunder in the industrialized Victorian England. Morris’s thinking was deeply grounded in Romantic ideas.
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