Policies And Issues In Urban Development In Sri Lanka: An .

Policies and issues in urban development in Sri Lanka: an examination of the inter domain gapsbring in a voluminous body of interesting and usefulfindings on urban development related issues everyyear. However, the main problem noticeable with allthese sources is the inadequate communication of theirfindings to the outside communities. Even though someresearch in academic institutions could initiate certainkinds of practices, they have been limited to thoseinstitutions. For example, improved techniques andmethods supported by research findings are commonnowadays in university design studios for urban analysisfor planning, management and design activities. Studentprojects are illuminated with those techniques leading toexcellent results. Yet, the urban development agenciesstill depend largely upon conventional methods andtechniques, which have been proved to have had manylimitations.At the same time, inadequate collaboration amongresearch agencies in undertaking research is also evident.Urban management issues such as attracting investments,service delivery, waste disposal, public participation ingovernance, etc. have been topics discussed throughoutby all three types of agencies for many years. In spiteof the large number of publications on sets of differentissues1, the knowledge and expertise are still gatheredin isolated projects, rather than collaborating at nationallevel programmes. Therefore, a base to develop a widerinterest on good urban management practices amongrelevant authorities in Sri Lanka is not yet apparent.Fragmentation prevents the formation of a coherent bodyof knowledge within the field and this in turn, inhibits thedevelopment of interests among the needy.Fragmentation is also observed in the urban transportationsector, in which some work proposes reduced inflow ofmotor vehicles into the city and to promote improvedpublic transport measures such as ‘park-n-ride’ (UDA,2001), alternative choice models (Kumarage, 2004) andbus rapid transit system (Embarq, 2009) etc, while theothers have engaged in alternative route modelling andsimulations to enable the easy flow of traffic into thecity. Both are in search of methods to address issuesemerging from the increased use of motor vehicles. Afew projects could go to the extent of trial applications(eg: Park n Ride), while most of them remain unknownto many. Similarly, while some work emphasized thefact that provision of parking facilities encourage trafficin core areas (Diandas, 1995), others were interested insuitability options for car parks within the city viewingthat the present inflows are inevitable. This indicates adual orientation in research, while the consequences ofthis duality and the resulting practices are somewhatevident today with the large parking facilities provided atthe core areas of some cities (eg: in Kandy City Centre).Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences 35/36 (1 & 2)11Climate change effects and adaptation is a hot topic atpresent and many organizations have undertaken researchin this area. Urban development is regarded as a sector thatis most affected by climate change and also responsiblefor implementing strategies for adaptation. The Ministryconcerned has taken a special interest on climate changeand related issues and it hosted a number of publications,workshops and conferences over the last few years2.Even though urban development agencies were amongthe co-participants of these events, a significant move inthe sector is not seen to date.One of the known, but less discussed reasons behind theconfinement of knowledge into containers is the absenceof communication and the reluctance for collaborationsamong different institutions and individuals engagedin research. The individuals are driven by ego-centricobjectives that warranted authorship more than theoutcome of the ventures. When the objectives areself-oriented they naturally devalue opportunities forcollaboration and hitch-hiking possibilities in research.Reasons for the non-penetration of knowledge intopracticing and policy arenas include: bureaucraticestablishments within the organizations that resist newknowledge (Self, 1985) and the conservativeness thatembraces the organizations with their maturity, that makethem reluctant to change (Oh, 1997).INEVITABLE REALITIES: GAPS BETWEENINTEREST GROUPS AND POLICY MAKERSGround realities such as resource constraints, thepartiality of decision makers and the lack of voice forthe weaker, created gaps between interest groups andthe policy makers. This gap leaves less space for goodpractices to emerge and appropriate policies to beformulated. The present day urban development activitiesin Sri Lanka are mainly implicated by the directives ofUrban Development Authority (UDA). Concurrently, SriLanka’s local government policy envisions to recognize‘local governments as autonomous bodies by empoweringthem with needy manpower, financial and decisionmaking powers’3 and the local authorities too need theprompt effectuation of the policy (Abeywardane, 1999).To this end, local authorities are vested with substantialpowers to plan and regulate ‘area based’ developmentswithin the area of their jurisdictions4. However, planningand regulation of developments need higher levelof competencies for a broader understanding on thedevelopment potentials of the respective geographicentities, their use in conformity with the nationalpolicies, their impact on environmental conditions, andmany other aspects. In the absence of such competencies,June/Dec 2012/2013

12planning and regulatory processes are presently handledby the UDA, which has a centrally controlled, top-downmechanism. While the role of the local authority in urbandevelopment is limited to a few technicalities, the twoagencies are often seen having uncomfortable sittingswith each other at decision making. Even though a highlevel of autonomy is the interest, inadequate resourceshave constrained policies from turning into practices.A similar duality is also observed in the transportationsector, which is a key function of urban development.The magnitude of the problems in urban transportationcan be sensed with the finding that more than twothirds of the road space in urban areas are being usedby less than one third of those who use hired and privatevehicles, while only one fifth of the roads space arebeing given to the other two-thirds (Diandas, 1995;EMBARQ, 2009). These complications were addressedby several proposals seeking better scenarios forurban development such as alternative transportationmodes (Kumarage, 2004), bus rapid transport system(EMBARQ, 2009), etc. Encouraging the use of publictransport and walking are often stated as ‘good practices’for better quality of life in urban environments. Quitecontrary to the findings and the advocacies, the relaxedpolicies of the government on motor vehicle import andownership promotes more and more private cars on theroad, aggravating the problem rather than promotinggood practices. When transportation at the urban level isconsidered, policies imply a priority order: the pedestrian:the first, the cyclist: the second and motor vehicle: the last(Diandas,1995; NPPD5). At the same time, urban designprojects envision livable, workable and enjoyable urbanenvironments for all user groups of whom the majorityare pedestrians that use public transportation modes.Still, the road development activities of the relevantauthorities seem to be more in favour of facilitatingvehicles rather than comforting the pedestrians andcyclists, as the roads are designed with least possiblespace for the latter. An unpublished studio work in recentyears in the University of Moratuwa6, revealed that ahigher percentage of the streets in Colombo and othercities did not have sidewalks. The macadam paving upto the shoulder edge of the roads with no differentiatedpaving for sidewalks had been detrimental to pedestriansas the entire road space was used by motor vehicles eitherfor movement or for parking. Adding to this, the recenttraffic management strategies devised with the supportof Sri Lanka Police that included making more roads oneway to ease the flow, shifting bus halts, etc., are in favourof the minority that uses vehicles. Although in-depthstudies on the impacts of this Act have yet to be found, ithas undoubtedly imposed a burden on the users of publicJune/Dec 2012/2013Jagath Munasinghetransport, who composed the overwhelming majority ofthe commuters. They are compelled to walk far to get totheir destination and wander to find bus routes, bus stops,road crossings, etc (Kumarage, 2011). Clearly the trafficmanagement practices at this instance reveal a deviationfrom the general policy in the absence of a voice for theweaker, who is still the majority.These situations show the inconsistencies between what isthere in the policy and what is being practiced. Preferredpractices, however much supported by interests, couldnot adequately influence policy agents, while the policiesmay not necessarily be in practice for a variety of reasons.On one hand, the link between interest groups and policymakers as well as the latter and the enforcing agentsare not that smooth. On the other, policy framing too issomewhat fragmented among national level organizations.The need, therefore, is a strong nexus between researchgroups, policy makers and the implementing agents. Agood sign towards this from recent times is the increasedengagement of research done as consultants in manyministries, public organizations and developmentagencies. This may be a good opportunity to infuse betterand more versatile practices into policies. If they are ableto influence policy making processes, then the impasse isnot that hard to break. However, they will have to dealwith the obstacles such as politics that play the majorrole in making choices, incompetence and resistance ofthe bureaucracy to newly emerging knowledge and theresource constraints within implementing agencies toinitiate and sustain good practices. (Self, 1985)CONFLICTING INTERESTS: GAPSBETWEEN POLICY MAKERS AND THESOCIETYThe gaps observed between policy intentions and thegeneral social interests seem to be resulting in anotherset of issues. The crucial gaps are well seen today withthe issues related to solid waste disposal, which hasbecome a riddle in urban management. The governmenthas introduced many policies and encouraged practicessuch as reducing the use of polythene and plastics,sorting waste at generation, recycling of waste materials,use of compost bins, etc7. These practices are supportedby many interest groups and a large number of privatebusiness organizations. However, the success rate ofthese practices is not impressive since the messageis not that well received by the society in general. Aninteresting example in this regard is found in a recentcase related to polythene products, which have beenamong the top trouble makers in both urban and nonSri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences 35/36 (1 & 2)

Policies and issues in urban development in Sri Lanka: an examination of the inter domain gapsurban environments in Sri Lanka. Polythene products areoften shown as a demonized material, but quite attractiveto the users for their versatility, cheap availability andperhaps, relatively better durability. The havocs theyevidently create in the environment include severedrain blockages, non-degradable waste accumulation,mosquito breading, danger to wildlife and many more.In one of the instances, a practice introduced by leadingsupermarket chains in the country with the blessings ofthe relevant ministry, to levy a fee on polythene bags inorder to discourage the use was challenged by a citizensgroup and ruled out through a court order8. This, in someway, indicates a conflict between the interests of thepolicy making agencies and the general public.Another set of conflicting interests is observable with theNational Physical Planning Policy, which is supposedto be the supreme national level policy that deals withurban development related issues in Sri Lanka. Thepolicy was formulated by the National Physical PlanningDepartment based on the findings of a stream of researchactivities. The policy has covered a wider range ofinterests including urban development, infrastructureprovision, transportation and connectivity improvement,environment conservation, land use distribution, etc.It advocates an urban development strategy that willconstrain physical development activities in the fragileareas (central hills) of Sri Lanka with the intention ofpreserving the water catchment of the island. In orderto accommodate continuous trends of urbanization, itindicated a few metropolitan growth areas scatteredmostly in the dry zone of the country (NPPD, 2009).The policy has clearly addressed the problem of theendangered water catchment of the island. However,it is observed that the policy was not known to many,even among affluent agencies and interest groups of thesociety. The problem generally discussed and highlightedmore often than not is the difficulties presentlyexperienced in the means of accessing the central areasof the island. Therefore, the authorities responsible forroad transportation proposed an expressway to the city ofKandy along with many highways in the central hills9. Asthe generally accepted norm is that higher accessibility toa location leads it to have a greater potential for urbandevelopment (Leda, 2010), the improved access to centralhills may open up possibilities for rapid urbanization inthose areas. Thus, there seems to be an inconsistencybetween the authorities involved in physical planningand road development although both work for nationaland social interest. Similarly, the national projects relatedto urban infrastructure such as electricity, water supplyand road construction formulated by related agencies inmany cases are blind towards the main national physicalplanning policy. Upon political pressure, immediateSri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences 35/36 (1 & 2)13needs of certain local groups and demand clusters areaddressed instead of discouraging the developments inany environmentally sensitive locations in the island.Research on climate change revealed that a substantialpart of our coastal areas are vulnerable to the effects ofthe rise of sea level and many others in the central hillsare vulnerable to landslides, etc. It is also noted thatmore than seventy percent of the urban population in SriLanka are living in these urban areas of the coast andthe hills (Census, 2001). The National Physical PlanningPolicy addressed this issue by means of providing somedirectives for future urban development. Yet, this has notinfluenced the mainstream political ideologies to redirecturban development from the coastal belt and the centralhills to elsewhere. When information of the nationalcensus is compared, the coastal urban areas have grownby nearly sixty percent in terms of population increasebetween 1971 and 2001, and this figure is almost twicethe size of the same of all non-coastal towns. The trendhas not changed much over the last ten years and aclearer picture of this will be possible with the findingsof the 2011 census. Thus, the research findings and theurban development related policies have less effect onthe preferred residential location choices of the societythat gears the prevailing urban development trends in theisland.The most recent political advancements in Sri Lanka inwhich urban development is a subject under the nationaldefense portfolio of the central government, may beregarded as a landmark event and signifies a positiveturn to address the said inconsistencies at some level.Even though the act is debatable and multiple views areexpressed on the situation, this would be an opportunityto have a unified, all inclusive policy that will holisticallyaddress the concerns of urban development, accessibility,national security, land reclamation, environmentmanagement and many more disciplines.DIFFERENCES IN PERCEPTIONS: GAPSBETWEEN INGROUND SITUATIONS ANDRESEARCH OBJECTIVESThe differences in perceptions among research groups,policy makers and the society lead to have differencesin the framing of problem situations and thus, widenthe gap between them. This difference is manifestedin the definitions, the research studies and the policyimplications in urban development. The effectivenessof any policy depends upon the extent to which themeans and bounds of the subject it deals with is clearlydefined. In urban development, the policies often findJune/Dec 2012/2013

14difficulties with the definitions associated with them.The definition of an ‘urban area’ is one of the foremostareas of uncertainty in Sri Lanka (Indrasiri, 2000). In theabsence of a commonly agreed definition, each agencyselects its own criterion to define an urban area. UrbanDevelopment Authority defines all spatial entities thathave been declared by a Gazette notification by theminister concerned as urban areas10. The Census andStatistics Department considers all areas under MunicipalCouncil and Urban Council jurisdictions as urban areas11.There are other organizations that considers relativelymore densely populated localities as urban units12.Variations in definitions produce inconsistencies ininformation. For example, according to the figures ofcensus 1981 and 2001, the percentage urban population inSri Lanka had drastically declined by nearly fifty percentwithin that period. This was due to the merger of thelocal administration units known as ‘Town Councils’ and‘Gam Sabhas’ to introduce ‘Pradeshiya Sabhas’ in 1980sunder local government reforms. Since the definitionsof the Census and Statistics remained the same, TownCouncil areas were considered to be ‘rural’ along withPradeshiya Sabhas and the results presented a confusingreverse trend in urbanization in the island. At the sametime, the Urban Development Authority’s declaration ofurban areas is based very much on timely requirements,but not on widely known criterion. Similar inexplicitnessis observable in the declaration of municipal and urbanstatus of local areas for local government purposes.Thus, from an objective point of view, some of the highlypopulated and already urbanized areas may still remainundeclared13, while the highly agriculture based settingswith rural character might have already got urbanstatus14. This notes a serious gap between the groundsituation and policy perception and this gap needs to bemended through research on this matter, but still has notinterested many.Related to the above, there is another problem associatedwith the urban local government sector in Sri Lanka.‘Urban’ areas according to currently effectuated localgovernment policies are the spatial entities underMunicipal Councils and Urban Councils. They havebeen carved out of the heterogeneous landscapes ofthe country and their boundaries are rigidly delineatedconsidering only a few factors such as the concentrationof population, activities and strategic importance(Munasinghe, 2007). This system of local governancewas a gift of British colonial ruling which adopted nothingmore than the model then available in UK. Within thissystem, within a locality of certain size, the area wherethe non-agricultural activities are mostly concentratedJune/Dec 2012/2013Jagath Munasingheare declared either as ‘municipal’ or ‘urban’ and thebalance is left out as ‘rural’. The interdependence andthe integrated nature of the geographic elements are notthat importantly considered. In the present day context,the local authorities experience enormous managementdifficulties due to the inevitable growth of urban activitiesbeyond the originally delineated boundaries, segregationof the spatial entity of the same functional unit into twoor more local authority jurisdictions, and the problems insharing of common resources between the urban and theadjacent rural local authority areas (Abhayawardhana etal.,1999). Except for minor changes in boundaries anda few cases of uplifting the status of local authorities,needy major reforms in the local government system todirect urban development in a desirable manner havenever been a concern for research up to now. Instead,research studies on local government usually mark theirpoint of departure accepting the status quo.Planning of the development of a great majority of smalland medium towns, spread in all parts of the island andexperiencing a rapid growth over the last three decadesis another area of importance for urban management,transportation and environment conservation. They allencountered a few common problems such as reclamationof low lying areas which have been their storm waterretention sites, traffic congestion along main arteries,disorder in activities, etc. Each of these issues havethroughout been perceived in i

Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences 2012/2013 35/36 (1 & 2) 9 jagathnm@sltnet.lk Policies and issues in urban development in Sri Lanka: an examination of the inter-domain gaps Jagath Munasinghe Department of Town & Country Planning, Faculty of Architecture, University of Moratuwa, Moratuw