Options For Switching UK Cement Production Sites To Near Zero CO2 .
Options for switching UK cement productionsites to near zero CO2 emission fuel:Technical and financial feasibility.Summary ReportFeasibility Study for the Department for Business Energy and IndustrialStrategyA report funded by an SBRI Competition: TRN 1674/10/2018AuthorsMineral Products AssociationGillingham House38-44 Gillingham StreetLondonSW1V 1VUCinar Ltd11 Elvaston PlaceLondonSW7 5QGVDZ gGmbHTannenstrasse 240476 DuesseldorfGermanyOctober 2019
Table of Contents1. Executive Summary . 52. Introduction . 8i.Industry Background. 8a.Cement in the UK . 8b.What is Cement?. 10c.Cement Standards . 13d.Lowering Emissions . 13ii.Fuel Switching Versus Other Decarbonisation Options . 16a.Timing . 16b.Net Zero . 16c.Technology. 17iii. Historic and Current Fuel Use . 17a.History of Fuel Use in UK Cement Manufacture. 17b.Fuel Use Today . 18c.Fuel Switching: It’s not just about energy . 18iv. Opportunities for Zero Carbon Fuel Cement Production . 19a.Candidate Energy Sources for Net Zero Carbon Combustion . 19b.Electrification . 19c.Biomass . 20d.Hydrogen . 213. Methodology . 214. Project Partners . 22i.Mineral Products Association (MPA), Project Coordinator . 22ii.CINAR Ltd . 22iii. VDZ gGmbH – Research Institute German Cement Works Association . 235. Literature Review and Environmental and Safety Considerations . 23i.Literature Review . 23a.Hydrogen (H2) . 23b.Electrification . 24c.Biomass . 25ii.Environmental and Safety Considerations. 26a.Hydrogen . 26b.Biomass . 266. Reference Plant . 27
i.Location . 27ii.Structure . 28iii. Key Parameters. 287. Fuel Specification and Plasma Burner Design . 29i.Coal Fuel Specification for Coal Fired Baseline . 29ii.Biomass Fuel Specification . 29iii. Use of Hydrogen . 30iv. Plasma Burner Design. 308. Scenarios Modelled . 309. Modelling Results . 32i.CO2 Reduction Achieved . 32ii.Other Parameters Modelled . 33a.Kiln Model . 33b.Calciner Scenarios . 3410.The Optimum Fuel Mix . 34i.Kiln . 34ii.Calciner . 3511.Issues Identified for Further Investigation . 3612.Product Safety Assessment . 3713.Techno-Economic Assessment . 38i.Analysis of Capital Costs . 38a.Hydrogen . 39b.Plasma Burner . 39ii.Cost Comparison with the Base Case . 4014.Non-Technical Considerations . 4115.Conclusions . 44i.Plasma burners . 44ii.Hydrogen . 45iii. Biomass. 46iv. Overall feasibility conclusions. 4716.Phase 3 Project Plan . 47
Table of FiguresFigure 1.1: Scenarios modelled and compared to 100% coal fired baseline . 5Figure 2.1: UK Cement Production 1950 to Present. . 9Figure 2.2: Proportion of UK Sales from Imported Cement 2001-2018 . 9Figure 2.3: MPA Cement Member Kiln, Grinding and Grinding and Blending Sites . 10Figure 2.4: Cement manufacturing process [source: “Technology Roadmap: LowCarbon transition in the Cement Industry”, International Energy Agency, CementSustainability Initiative, 2018]. . 11Figure 2.5: Reduction in Absolute and Relative Emissions from UK CementManufacture 1990 - 2018 . 14Figure 2.6: Waste Derived Fuel use in UK cement manufacture 1998-2018. 18Figure 2.7: Projection to 2035 of UK Electricity Generation by Source . 20Figure 6.1: BAT cement kiln . 28Figure 8.1: Scenarios modelled and compared to 100% coal fired baseline . 31Table of TablesTable 1.1: Calculation of the total cost of clinker considering the application ofadditional technologies ( 35 % uncertainty) . 8Table 1.2: Cost of possible CO2-savings ( 35 % uncertainty) . 8Table 2.1: Cement manufacturing in more detail [source: “Technology Roadmap:Low-Carbon transition in the Cement Industry”, International Energy Agency,Cement Sustainability Initiative, 2018]. 11Table 2.2: UK Involvement in decarbonisation research and development. . 15Table 5.1: Compilation of pollutants in sewage sludge . 27Table 6.1: Production characteristics of a BAT cement kiln . 28Table 7.1: Coal specification for Base Case. 29Table 8.1: Outline of the scenarios modelled . 31Table 9.1: CO2 Reduction for the Simulated Scenarios. 33Table 12.1: Comparison of input materials compositions (raw meal ash) and modulifor three product quality scenarios (composition in m-%, dry) . 38Table 13.1: Estimation of capital costs for fuel switching to hydrogen . 39Table 13.2: Estimated calculation of the plasma torch system . 39Table 13.3: Estimated calculation of the capital costs directly related to the plasmatorch system . 40Table 13.4: Estimated calculation of the operational costs directly related to theplasma torch system . 40Table 13.5: Calculation of the total cost of clinker considering the application ofadditional technologies ( 35 % uncertainty) . 40Table 13.6: Cost of possible CO2-savings with strong hydrogen price dependency( 35 % uncertainty) . 41Table 14.1: Non-technical considerations for net zero fuel mix deployment. 41
1. Executive SummaryMineral Interactive Computation Fluid Dynamic (MI-CFD) modelling shows that netzero fuel switching holds considerable promise for the environmental performance ofcement manufacture, but technical limitations exist that require further work andinvestigation through physical demonstrations.The methodology used in this study has allowed for the iterative development ofpreliminary optimum fuel switching scenarios. Previous empirical evidence andexperience of MI-CFD in the cement sector provides a high degree of confidence inthe modelling results. The benefits to this feasibility study in using MI-CFD is that theresults provide robust evidence for the development of Phase 3 demonstrationprojects.Against a base case of 100% coal fuelled cement plant, this study has modelled afuel mix of 70% of the thermal input from biomass, 20% from hydrogen and 10%from plasma (electrification), across one scenario for the kiln and three differentscenarios for the calciner (see Figure 1.1).Figure 1.1: Scenarios modelled and compared to 100% coal fired baselineUsing a mix of 50% hydrogen and 50% biomass in the kiln and 83.3% biomass with16.7% plasma in the Calciner leads to total elimination of all fossil fuel CO2, leavingonly process CO2 from the breakdown of raw materials and CO2 from biomass fuels(considered to be CO2 neutral). To put this into context, if this fuel switching wasdeployed at all cement plants in the UK, the annual CO2 saving would amount toover 2 million tonnes (excluding biomass emissions), equivalent to the CO2
emissions from 266,000 households 1. This suggests that when used in combinationwith carbon capture of the raw material CO2 a net zero emitting cement kiln could beenvisaged. It also suggests that where carbon capture is deployed on the rawmaterial ‘process CO2’ and the combustion CO2, that a ‘net negative’ cement plantcould be envisaged.This fuel switching option, if deployed across all UK cement manufacturing sites atcurrent cement production levels, would require over 1.2 million tonnes of biomassfuel (compared to 68k tonnes of 100% biomass fuels used in 2018). The key issueswith biomass centre around securing long term sustainable supplies. Currently, thecement sector relies on waste biomass and part biomass fuels. The intention wouldbe to source as much biomass from these waste sources as possible beforeconsidering the use of virgin biomass. Use of virgin biomass would introduce newissues around sustainability that the UK cement sector have not had to deal with todate in using only waste sources, which are inherently more sustainable havingalready been through at least one previous use before being utilised.The results indicate that the elimination of fossil fuel CO2 should be possible with nonegative impact on clinker quality, kiln stability or build-up issues but some furtherwork through demonstration is required to verify the modelling and to address thefollowing:--That the kiln burner can be optimised such that the higher flame temperaturecan be controlled to match that achieved using coal where the flame isconfined to the centre of the kiln without touching the walls, in order to protectthe refractory kiln lining. A demonstration would enable testing of burnerdesign and location aimed at reducing the higher temperature regions andassociated NOx emissions.Ensure that biomass fuel design is such that larger chips do not fall into thebed and negatively affect clinker quality. A specific fuel specification may berequired for biomass fuel supplied to the main burner.Hot spots observed in the modelling near the calciner walls need to beminimised. The location of plasma injection in relation to the hot meal andbiomass inlets needs to be investigated further. The correct positioning willimprove the heat absorption via the calcination process in the near burnerregions and reduce the hot spots observed.Each issue identified above, can first be addressed through plant-specific modellingduring the next phase of the project. The initial plant specific Baseline andAlternative simulation will then be expanded with optimisation by variations in theoperating parameters (i.e. hydrogen injection velocity, rates of axial air, biomassinjection location, meal inlet modification etc). Once the optimum parameters areselected it will be implemented through the physical demonstration which, inaddition, will also provide the opportunities for various measurements to be collectedand used to provide further assessment of modelling parameters and addressBased on CCC analysis for the 5th carbon budget of CO2 emissions for the average UK household(8.1 tonnes of CO2 per year in 2014), 07/5CBInfographic-FINAL-.pdf1
specific issues. Finally, further optimisation via modelling can take place (thusavoiding more expensive physical tests/experiments) to eliminate any remainingissues.If these issues could be addressed and overcome through the demonstration project,fuel switching would become a key part of the transition to net zero cementproduction: Timing: Both fuel switching and CCUS will require innovative technologyupdates to realise. However, cement manufacturers have considerableexperience with fuel switching and some of the technologies that can aid thisare currently available. Fuel switching could therefore be implemented in thenear future. CCUS technology has the potential to be far more disruptive tothe cement manufacturing process and is reliant on there being either optionsfor utilising the captured CO2 or the infrastructure to enable it to betransported for storage.Net Zero: In legislating for the UK to meet a target of net zero by 2050, everyoption for decarbonisation needs to be explored. Fuel switching might reducethe need for expensive CCUS by limiting it to the capture of processemissions only. However, if used to capture biomass CO2 emissions, cementmanufacture could become net negative and help to offset other harder todecarbonise sectors of the economy.Technology: Some CCUS technologies, such as the Calix technology that isbeing trialled in the LEILAC project or the calcium looping technology beingtrialled under CEMPCAP (see Table 2.2), may only capture processemissions. Therefore fuel switching will still be required to reach deep levelsof decarbonisation. It is also possible that for some sites, CCUS is not anoption because there isn’t space on site for capture plant, planning permissionfor capture plant is unlikely to be granted or the logistics of transporting CO2from the site are incredibly difficult. The only way to lower emissions fromthese sites at all, may therefore be fuel switching.A financial comparison to business as usual shows that net zero fuel switching costsare considerable and currently prohibitive under operating conditions today (seeTable 1.1 and Table 1.2 below). However, this feasibility study gives plants thetechnical information to progress to the next stage of research and development.Eventual deployment of net zero fuel cement manufacture would be a world firstinnovation.
Table 1.1: Calculation of the total cost of clinker considering the application ofadditional technologies ( 35 % uncertainty)Additional cost of clinker due to fuel switchAdditional CAPEX Hydrogen0.105 /tclinkerAdditional CAPEX Plasma2.209 /tclinkerAdditional Fixed OPEX0.10 /tclinkerAdditional Variable OPEX19.33 /tclinkerTotal cost of clinker for fuel switch21.74 /tclinkerTable 1.2: Cost of possible CO2-savings ( 35 % uncertainty)Price of CO2 per ton of produced clinkerTotal cost of clinker with additional technologies21.74 /tclinkerCO2 savings310 kgCO2/t clinkerCost of CO2 savings70.1 /tCO2This feasibility study concludes with a programme of work to address the gaps intechnical and techno-economic knowledge.Acknowledgements: The authors would like to acknowledge the considerable ‘inkind’ contributions made to this project by Breedon, Cemex UK, Hanson, Tarmacand Aggregate Industries2. Introductioni.Industry Backgrounda. Cement in the UKCement is the essential ingredient in concrete, which is the world's second mostconsumed substance after water. Portland cement was first patented in Britain by abricklayer, Joseph Aspdin, from Leeds in 1824 and to this day is one of the society’smost useful materials; no modern school, house, road, hospital or bridge could bebuilt without it.The cement industry contributes nearly a billion pounds annually to the UK economy.The UK has 11 manufacturing and two grinding and blending plants and producesaround ten million tonnes of Portland cement a year, representing about 78% of thecement sold in the UK. An additional cement kiln produces specialist CalciumAluminate cement, much of which is exported. Cement production was hit heavily bythe 2008 recession and in 2009 production dropped to the lowest recorded since1950 (Figure 2.1). Imports of cement to the UK have historically made up around10% of the market. However, since 2006 imports have steadily increased and nowmake up 22% of the cement sales in the UK (Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.1: UK Cement Production 1950 to Present.Figure 2.2: Proportion of UK Sales from Imported Cement 2001-2018The entire UK Portland cement production capacity is operated by five major UKmanufacturers, namely: CEMEX UK, Hanson Cement, Breedon Cement (A BreedonGroup company), Lafarge Cement (a member of LafargeHolcim) and Tarmac (aCRH Company) (Figure 2.3).
Company6SiteRugbySouth 9A member of LafargeHolcim10111213Key9625127813Kiln sitesGrinding and blending sitesGrinding only sites14103Figure 2.3: MPA Cement Member Kiln, Grinding and Grinding and Blending Sitesb. What is Cement?Cement is a man-made powder that, when mixed with water and aggregates,produces concrete. The cement-making process (Figure 2.4) can be summarised in3 basic steps (more detailed information is available in Table 2.1):1. Raw material preparation2. Clinker production in a kiln at a temperatures of 1,450oC3. The grinding of clinker with other minerals to produce cement
Figure 2.4: Cement manufacturing process [source: “Technology Roadmap: LowCarbon transition in the Cement Industry”, International Energy Agency, CementSustainability Initiative, 2018].Table 2.1: Cement manufacturing in more detail [source: “Technology Roadmap:Low-Carbon transition in the Cement Industry”, International Energy Agency,Cement Sustainability Initiative, 2018].1. Quarrying Raw Materials: Naturally occurring calcareous deposits, suchas limestone, marl or chalk, provide calcium carbonate, which is a keyingredient for cement. They are extracted by heavy duty machines fromquarries, which are often located close to the cement plant. Small amountsof other materials, such as iron ore, bauxite, shale, clay or sand, may alsobe excavated from deposits to provide the extra iron oxide, alumina andsilica needed in the chemical composition of the raw mix to meet theprocess and product performance requirements.2. Crushing: The quarried materials are crushed, typically to less than 10centimetres in size, and are transported to the cement plant.3. Preparing Raw Meal: Raw materials are mixed to achieve the requiredchemical composition in a process called “prehomogenisation”. Thecrushed material is then milled to produce a fine powder called “raw meal”.The chemistry of the raw materials and raw meal is monitored andcontrolled, to ensure consistent and high quality of cement.4. Preheating and co-processing: A preheater is a series of verticalcyclones through which the raw meal is passed. During this process, theraw meal comes into contact with swirling hot kiln exhaust gases moving inthe opposite direction. Thermal energy is recovered from the hot flue gasesin these cyclones, and the raw meal is preheated before it enters the kiln.The chemical reactions therefore occur quickly and efficiently. Dependingon the raw material moisture content, a kiln may have up to six stages ofcyclones with increasing heat recovery at each stage. The raw mealtemperature is raised to over 900 C.
5.6.7.8.9.Cement production can co‑process wastes and by‑products generated fromother industries and municipalities, as materials for the raw mix or as fuelsfor pyro-processing. Wastes and by‑products vary widely in nature andmoisture composition. They may need sorting, shredding and drying beforefeeding into the cement kiln.Precalcining: Calcination is the decomposition of limestone into lime. Ittakes place in a “precalciner” in most processes. This is a combustionchamber at the bottom of the preheater above the kiln and is partly in thekiln. Here, the chemical decomposition of limestone into lime and CO2typically emits 60‑70% of the total CO2 emissions. Fuel combustiongenerates the rest of the carbon emissions. Approximately 65% of all fuel isburnt in this step of the process, in plants with precalciner technology.Producing Clinker in the Rotary Kiln: The precalcined meal then entersthe kiln. Fuel is fired directly into the kiln to reach temperatures of up to 1450 C. As the kiln rotates (about three to five times per minute), thematerial slides and falls through progressively hotter zones towards theflame. The intense heat causes chemical and physical reactions thatpartially melt the meal into clinker. The reactions in the kiln includecompletion of the calcination of limestone that has not taken place in theprecalciner and emission of CO2 from other CO2 combined minerals. TheCO2 released from the raw materials during production is referred to as“process CO2 emissions”.Cooling and Storing: Hot clinker from the kiln is cooled from over 1 000 Cto 100 C rapidly on a grate cooler, which blows incoming combustion aironto the clinker. The air blowers use electricity and heated blown aircirculation to improve thermal efficiency. A typical cement plant will haveclinker storage between clinker production and the cement grindingprocess. Clinker may be loaded onto transportation, and can then be tradedor further processed into cement.Blending: Clinker is mixed with other mineral components to make cement.All cement types contain around 4‑5% gypsum to control the setting time ofthe cement. Slag, fly ash, limestone or other materials can be interground orblended to replace part of the clinker. This produces blended cement.Cement grinding: The cooled clinker and gypsum mixture is ground into agrey powder, known as Portland cement (PC), or ground with other mineralcomponents to make blended cement. Ball mills have traditionally beenused for grinding, although roller presses and vertical mills are often used inmodern plants due to their greater energy efficiency.Over time UK cement producers have invested heavily in upgrading kilns to improveenergy efficiency. Historically cement was produced using a wet process wherebyraw materials were fed into the kiln in the form of a slurry. This required considerableenergy to drive off moisture before the sintering process could begin. Today in theUK there are no longer any wet process kilns but two main types of kiln remain;semi-dry (3 sites) and dry (8 sites). Within this there are variations in terms ofwhether or not the kiln has a pre-calciner and if so how many stages it has andwhether or not there is a pre-heater and the number of stages it has. Unlike thehistoric wet process kilns, modern cement manufacture utilises waste gases topreheat raw materials and improve energy efficiency.
c. Cement StandardsAll cements produced in the EU have to meet standard EN 197-1 “Cement:Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements”. Thisstandard exists to ensure that cement produced across Europe is harmonised and ofthe correct quality for use in construction to ensure all homes, buildings andinfrastructure are safe and durable.The standard sets out 27 different cement types that can be produced. These arebroadly categorised as CEM I, CEM II, CEM III, CEM IV and CEM V with thecategorisation depending on the type of constituents they contain. Different cementtypes have different properties and therefore suit different applications. They alsohave different CO2 profiles 2.d. Lowering EmissionsThe manufacture of cement is an energy and CO2 intensive process with around70% of total emissions arising from the chemical decomposition of limestone(process emissions) and only 30% from the combustion of fuels. The split variesfrom plant to plant and country to country largely based on the CO2 intensity of thelocal fuel mix. Considerable progress has already been made in reducing emissionsin UK cement manufacture (Figure 2.5) through investment in newer more efficientplant and fuel switching to biomass fuels. In 2018 a wide range of waste biomassand part biomass fuels contributed 17% to the total thermal input.More information is available in an MPA Factsheet, “Factsheet 18, Embodied CO2e emissions of UKcement, additions and cementitious material”, 2019 s/Factsheet 18.pdf2
Figure 2.5: Reduction in Absolute and Relative Emissions from UK CementManufacture 1990 - 2018In 2013 the Mineral Products Association (MPA) 3 published a roadmap setting outhow emissions could be reduced by 80% compared to 1990 4 and the conditionsunder which that may be achieved. It concluded that in addition to incrementalenergy efficiency, there are three key technologies to decarbonising cementmanufacture:1. Use of greater cementitious additions in the product2. Fuel switching to low carbon fuels (e.g. biomass).3. Carbon Capture and Utilisation/Storage (CCUS)This conclusion was validated in the UK Government cement roadmap 5 that waspublished in 2015, which MPA was also involved in producing.The Mineral Products Association is the trade association for the aggregates, asphalt, cement,concrete, dimension stone, lime, mortar and silica sand industries.4 MPA Cement Greenhouse Gas Reduction Strategy, MPA Cement 2050 Strategy.pdf5 “Industrial Decarbonisation and Energy Efficiency Roadmaps to 2050; Cement”, March 2015,Department for Energy and Climate Change and Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (nowa combined Department for Energy and Industrial /government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment data/file/416674/Cement Report.pdf3
As the roadmaps outline there are a range of technologies needed to deeplydecarbonise UK cement production. The cement industry are involved in furtherdeveloping these technologies as set out in Table 2.2.Table 2.
Figure 2.2: Proportion of UK Sales from Imported Cement 2001-2018 . 9 Figure 2.3: MPA Cement Member Kiln, Grinding and Grinding and Blending Sites . 10 Figure 2.4: Cement manufacturing process [source: "Technology Roadmap: Low-Carbon transition in the Cement Industry", International Energy Agency, Cement
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