Status Of The Vehicular Pollution Control Programme In India

LPGLiquefied Petroleum GasLSDLow Sulphur DieselMBIMarket Based InstrumentsM &MMahindra & Mahindra LimitedMDPMMarket Determined Pricing MechanismMMTPAMillion Metric Tonnes Per AnnumMMTMillion Metric TonnesMNESMinistry of Non – Conventional Energy SourcesMOBILEMobile Source Emissions FactorMoEFMinistry of Environment and ForestsMONMotor Octane NumberMoPNGMinistry of Petroleum and Natural GasMoRTHMinistry of Road Transport and HighwayMSMotor Sprit (Gasoline / Petrol)MTBEMethyl Tertiary Butyl EtherMUVsMulti Utility VehiclesMVRMotor Vehicle RulesNAAQSNational Ambient Air Quality StandardsNAAQMNational Ambient Air Quality MonitoringNAMPNational Air Quality Monitoring ProgrammeNCRNational Capital RegionNCTNational Capital TerritoryNEPNational Environmental PolicyNEERINational Environmental Engineering Research InstituteNMHCNon –Methane HydrocarbonNO 2Nitrogen DioxideNOxNitrogen OxideOBDOn Board DiagnosticsPAHPolycyclic Aromatic HydrocarbonsPbLeadPCVPositive Crankcase Ventilationxii

PMParticulate MatterPPMParts Per MillionPSUPublic Sector UndertakingPTPublic TransportPUCPollution Under ControlRHCReactive Hydro CarbonRONResearch Octane NumberRSPMRespirable Suspended Particulate MatterRVPReid Vapour PressureRTORoad Transport OffficeSISpark IgnitionSIAMSociety of Indian Automobile ManufacturesSO 2Sulphur DioxideSPMSuspended Particulate MatterSTUsState Transport UndertakingsT10Temperature at which 10% vol. of the fuel evaporatesT50Temperature at which 50% vol. of the fuel evaporatesT90Temperature at which 90% vol. of the fuel evaporatesT95Temperature at which 95% vol. of the fuel evaporatesTCTurbo –ChargedTCACTurbo Charged After CooledTERIThe Energy Research Institute, New DelhiTHCTotal Hydro CarbonULEVUltra Low Emission VehiclesUNEPUnited Nations Environmental ProgrammeUSEPAUnited States Environmental Protection AgencyUTUnion TerritoriesVGTVariable Geometry TurbochargerVLIVapour Lock IndexVOCVolatile Organic Compoundsxiii

VRDEVehicleResearchAhmednagarandWHOWorld Health OrganisationxivDevelopmentEstablishment,

CONTRIBUTIONSOverall Guidance:Shri. J.S. KamyotraMember SecretaryReport RevisionEditing & Finalization:Dr. R.S. MahwarAdditional DirectorReport Preparation:Shri. R.C. SaxenaSenior Environmental EngineerShri. G.ThirumurthyEnvironmental EngineerSmt. Meetu Puri,Junior Scientific AssistantReport Initiation:Shri. Rajesh DebroyEnvironmental Engineer

1.0Introduction:Air pollution is one of the serious environmental concern of the urban Asian citiesincluding India where majority of the population is exposed to poor air quality.The health related problems such as respiratory diseases, risk of developingcancers and other serious ailments etc. due to poor air quality are known andwell documented.Besides the health affects, air pollution also contributes totremendous economic losses, especially in the sense of financial resources thatare required for giving medical assistance to the affected people.The poor areoften the most affected segment of the population as they do not have adequatemeasures to protect themselves from air pollution.Most of the Indian Cities are also experiencing rapid urbanization and themajority of the country’s population is expected to be living in cities within a spanof next two decades. Since poor ambient air quality is largely an urban problemthis will directly affect millions of the dwellers in the cities.The rapid urbanization in India has also resulted in a tremendous increase thenumber of motor vehicles. The vehicle fleets have even doubled in some cities inthe last one decade. This increased mobility, however, come with a high price.As the number of vehicles continues to grow and the consequent congestionincreases, vehicles are now becoming the main source of air pollution in urbanIndia.Although, the air quality can be improved through a combination orms,institutionalapproaches and market-based instruments, there are certain unique challengeswhich the country has to face in tackling the problem of urban air pollution.These include, the transport features which are different from the developedcountries particularly in terms of the types of vehicles commonly used, themanner in which the road network is operated and sharing of the limited space bypedestrians and non-motorized modes with modern vehicles in Indian cities.Vehicles in India are often much older and usually comprise technologiesconsidered as out-dated in the developed world. The institutions responsible formanaging urban air quality are also not as well developed as those in the1

developed countries. The country has however taken a number of measures forthe improvement of the air quality in cities. These include, right from theimprovement in the fuel quality, formulation of necessary legislation andenforcement of vehicle emission standards, improved traffic planning andmanagement etc. The non-technical measures taken include, awareness raisingregarding the possible economic and health impacts of air pollution and availablemeasures for improving air quality, increasing use of cleaner fuels and purchaseof vehicles with advance emission control devices, increasing institutionalframework and capacity building for the monitoring of vehicle emissions.The document presents a review of the vehicular emission problems in Indiancities, the various developments that have taken place in the past including thestudies conducted for assessment of the air quality in cities, the legislation andstandards adopted for the control of vehicle emissions, the role of the variousconcerned agencies, the steps taken for improvement in the quality of theautomotive fuel, the overall impact of these measures and the future strategy tobe adopted for vehicular emission reduction and related issues.2.0Vehicular pollutants and their health/environmental effects2.1Contribution of various sources towards ambient air qualityOrganization like TERI, UNEP/ WHO, World Bank, BARC/CESE/IIT, etc havecarried out studies in the past to estimate the contribution of various sourcestowards the ambient air quality. The summary of the results of the above studiesfor Delhi & Mumbai are given pollutant wise in Table 2.02.2Major vehicle/fuel pollutantsAutomotive vehicles emit several pollutants depending upon the type of quality ofthe fuel consumed by them. The release of pollutants from vehicles also includefugitive emissions of the fuel, the source and level of these emissions dependingupon the vehicle type, its maintenance etc. The major pollutants released asvehicle/fuel emissions are, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, photochemicaloxidants, air toxics namely benzene, aldehydes, 1-3 butadiene, lead, particulatematter, hydrocarbon, oxides of sulphur and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.While the predominant pollutants in petrol/gasoline driven vehicles are2

hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide, the predominant pollutants from the dieselbased vehicles are Oxides of nitrogen and particulates. Details on emissionsemitted by vehicles is given at Annexure-ITable 2.0: Summary of the results of various studiesDomestic &other sourcesPMIndustrial4.SO 2Transport3.NOxDomestic &other sources2.CO10% hi76% to37% to13%13% to29%1% to84% to95%Nil to74% to16%2% to90%66% to74%5% to12%3% to22%2%4%4%16%16%53%to56%Source: Auto Fuel Policy Report2.3.Health and environmental effects of vehicular pollutants2.3.1General/Overall EffectsThe vehicular emissions have damaging effects on both human health andecology. There is a wide range of adverse health/environmental effects of thepollutants released from vehicles. The effects may be direct as well as in-directcovering right from reduced visibility to cancers and death in some cases of3

acute exposure of pollutants specially carbon monoxide. These pollutants arebelieved to directly affect the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. Inparticular, high levels of Sulphur dioxide and Suspended Particulate Matter areassociated with increased mortality, morbidity and impaired pulmonary function.The overall effects of vehicular emissions are summarized in table 2.1. Thepollutant wise health effects are summarized in table 2.2 and detailed inAnnexure II.Table-2.1: Vehicles emit significant amounts of several pollutants with varyingeffects as summarized.Health EffectPollutant Direct IndirectClimate ChangeAcidEutrophication Visibility CO carbon monoxide, HC hydrocarbon, NOx nitrogen oxides, PM particulate matter,SO2 sulfur oxide , a Ozone4

Table 2.2: Health effects associated withPollutantEffect on Human HealthCarbon gcardiovascular disease symptoms, particularly angina; mayalso particularly affect fetuses, sick, anemic and youngchildren, affects nervous system impairing physicalcoordination, vision and judgments, creating nausea andheadaches, reducing productivity and increasing personaldiscomfort.Nitrogen OxidesIncreased susceptibility to infections, pulmonary diseases,impairment of lung function and eye, nose and throatirritations.Sulphur DioxideAffect lung function adversely.Particulate Matter andRespirable ParticulateMatter (SPM andRPM)Fine particulate matter may be toxic in itself or may carry toxic(including carcinogenic) trace substance, and can alter theimmune system. Fine particulates penetrate deep into therespiratory system irritating lung tissue and causing long-termdisorders.LeadImpairs liver and kidney, causes brain damage in childrenresulting in lower I.Q., hyperactivity and reduced ability toconcentrate.BenzeneBoth toxic and carcinogenic. Excessive incidence of leukemia(blood cancer) in high exposure areas.HydrocarbonsPotential to cause cancer5

2.3.2WHO Guidelines on Air QualityThe 2005 WHO Air quality guidelines (AQGs) of World Health Organization(WHO)are designed to offer global guidance on reducing the health impacts of airpollution. The guidelines first produced in 19871 and updated in 19972 had aEuropean scope. The new (2005) guidelines apply worldwide and are based onexpert evaluation of current scientific evidence. They recommend revised limitsfor the concentration of selected air pollutants: particulate matter (PM), ozone(O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2), applicable across all WHOregionsThe key facts and guideline values for selected air pollutants as recommended inthe WHO guidelines are given in Annexure III3.0Vehicular Pollution and Climate Change3.1Global Warming and Climate ChangeThe world average temperature has risen by about 1 F over the past century. Itis widely accepted that the global warming is related to anthropogenic GreenHouse Gases (GHGs). GHGs include, the common gases namely , carbondioxide and water vapor, and rarer gases such as nitrous oxide, methane andchlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) whose properties relate to the transmission orreflection of different types of solar radiations. The increase in such gases in theatmosphere is a result of the burning of fossil fuels, emission of pollutants intothe atmosphere by power plants and vehicle engines, etc. Of all human activities,driving motor vehicles produces the most intensive CO2 emissions and othertoxic gases per capita. A single tank of gasoline releases 140 180 kilograms ofCO2. Over 25% of transportation-related GHG emissions originate from urbanpassenger travel (Yang M. 1998). Unsustainable trends in urban transportationhave already manifested in frequent congestions, periodic gridlock and evidencelinking respiratory illnesses and deaths to poor air quality.3.2Global Emissions of GHG’s from Transport SectorTransport sector contributes around 14% towards the global emissions of greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide represents the largest proportion of basket ofgreenhouse gas emissions. During, the past three decades, carbon dioxideemissions from transport have increased faster than those from all other sectorsand are projected to increase more rapidly in future. The Road transport aloneemits around 16% of the global CO 2 emissions (Source: OICA). From 1990 to2004, carbon dioxide emissions from the world’s transport sector have increasedby 36.5%.For the same period, road transport emissions have increased by 29%6

in industrialized countries and 61% in the other countries (IEA, 2006). The globalemissions of GHG’s from different sectors have been shown in figure 3.0.Global Emissions of Green houseGasesFigure 3.0 : Global emissions of GHG’s from different sectorsThe CO2 emissions in the major developed and developing countries around theworld during 1980 to 2030 is shown in figure 3.1. The figure shows that theglobal CO2 emissions are going to get stabilized in the developed countries inthe near future, the CO 2 are likely to increase in the developing countries owingto its due economic growth as well rising human population. However, in terms ofper capita emissions the emissions from developing countries alike developedcountries, are also expected to stabilize in the near futureThe mode wise distribution of CO 2 emissions amongst transport section ( Seefigure 3.2), reveals that road transport contributes major share of around 73%towards total CO 2 emissions from transport sector. Aviation, Internationalshipping & Railways sector emissions of CO 2 from transport sector are about11%, 9% & 2% respectively.7

Figure 3.1 : CO2 emissions Transport sector 1980 - 2030Source: Modified from IEA 2008, World Energy OutlookFigure 3.2 : Global GHG’s emissions from Transport sector ( Mode-Wise)8

3.3Vehicle’s and Fuel specific emissions of the GHG’s3.3.1Emissions from different vehiclesThe left side in Figure 3.3 shows energy intensity of buses, cars and motorbikesin Canada in 1999. Gasoline and diesel buses rank the highest at the range of 40to 50 liters per 100 km traveled. The least energy intensive vehicle is motorbikes,consuming less than 10 litters per 100 km. Diesel and gasoline cars burn about10 to 20 liters per 100 km. The right hand of the figure shows energy intensity inliters per person per 100 km. We assume that all the vehicles are half loaded,i.e., 25 people for a bus, 2.5 for a car and one person for a motorbike. Then,energy intensity range order will be inversed when compared with the case in theleft chart. Gasoline motorbike requires 7-9 liters per person-100 km travel, but abus rider consumes no more than 2 liters. Diesel and gasoline cars are in therange between 4 to 7 litters per person-100km.Figure 3.3: Average Fuel Efficiency Factors for Urban Travel (Canada)3.3.2Emissions from different fuelsThe weighted GHG emissions in moles of CO2 equivalent per vehicle-miletraveled (VMT) which is equal to the un-weighted quantity multiplied by the globalwarming potential per mole of each gas, relative to carbon dioxide is shown intable 3.0. It can be seen that the compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied9

petroleum gas (LPG) vehicles emit least GHGs among all the transportation fuelsand alternatives.Table 3.0 : Weighted emissions from Gasoline and Alternative Fuels (Unit :Moles of CO 2 eq per VMT (Weighted)GreenhouseGas3.4Gasolin MethanolefromNaturalGasEthanol Compressed LiquefiedfromNatural Gas PetroleumCornGasCarbonDioxide (CO 2 )7.98.77.45.646Methane (CH 4 )0.220.350.390.910.17Nitrous Oxide( N 2 O)0.540.542.980.540.54Nitrogen Oxide(NOx)1.061.452.330.970.92CarbonMonoxide( 1Emissions of GHG’s from Transport Sector in IndiaAn well to exhaust study for CO 2 emissions carried out by a Delhi basedorganization Centre for Science and Environment has depicted that theemissions of CO 2 on Indian roads is expected to reach a value of 1212 milliontones during 2035 from a value of 208 million tones during 2005.Total CO 2emission from well to exhaust in Indian roads from 2005 to those projected in2035 are mentioned in figure 3.4.10

Total CO2 emissions (Well to exhaust) on Indian roads14001212M illio n to n n e s o f C O 2035Figure 3.4 : Total CO 2 emissions ( well to exhaust) on Indian RoadsSource : CSE, New Delhi4.0Overview of Transport sector in India4.1Growth of Transport Sector with Indian EconomyIndian economy reached to a landmark of 9% GDP in 2007-08. This has putIndia into the group of one of the fastest growing major economy after China.The service sector emerged as one of the main driving force in country's highGDP. The Sector wise GDP Growth rates are depicted in Table 4.0.11

Table 4.0: Sector –wise GDP Growth ratesSector2002 032003 - 042004 052005 55Industry6.796.008.518.0210.638.09a. Manufacturing6.816.638.658.9812.008.78b. Mining/Quarryc. 85.986.277.528.849.8711.0111.1810.66a. Construction7.9511.9816.1416.4611.989.81b. Trade,hotels**c. Finance /Insurance d. Community 211.793.935.416.857.216.897.25GDP at factorcost3.848.527.459.409.629.03Services* - includes forestry & fishing, ** - includes transport & Communication - includes real estate & business service, - includes social and personal servicesThe transport demand in India has been growing rapidly, which is the secondlargest consumer of energy, next only to Industry. The installed capacity ofIndian automobile industry is also increasing over the year based on thedomestic and international demand. The installed capacity of automobileindustry for year 2005-6 & 2006-07 and production & sale trends (Domestic &Export) are given in Table 4.1 and Table 4.2. The percentage of domesticmarket share of vehicle under various categories during 2008 - 09 is shown inFig. 4.0.Road freight transport demand is expected to grow by around 10% per annumin the backdrop of a targeted annual GDP growth of 9% during the Eleventh12

Five Year Plan. Road transport and the railways account for the majority of thiscontribution. Commercial energy consumption in the transport sector, about98% of which is in the form of HSD and gasoline, grew at the rate of 3.1% perannum in the 1970s and at 5.6% per annum in the 1990s.Table 4.1: Installed Capacities in the Indian Automobile IndustryInstalled capacity (in Millions)Vehicle type2005 -062006 – 07a. Four Wheelers1.792.24b. Two & Three Wheelers10.5912.69c. Others0.290.39Source: SIAM( Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers)Table 4.2: Indian Automobile Industry Production /Sale hreeWheelersTwoWheelersGrand 8-09P7,23,3309,

mitigation measures to improve the urban air quality and make the cities cleaner and greener. Over the past decade or so, the Government of India has notified statutes aimed at regulating and monitoring vehicular emissions across the country. Present document presents the Status of Vehicular Pollution Control Programmes and