IGCSE GEOGRAPHY CLASS NOTE For Private Circulation Only
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGEINTERNATIONAL EXAMINATIONSInternational General Certificate ofSecondary Education(IGCSE)IGCSE GEOGRAPHY CLASS NOTEFor Private Circulation onlyCopyright storing in any form and photocopying without theprior permission from the compiler is strictly prohibitedCompiled and Edited by Dr. R. B. Thohe PouHoD, Dept. of Geography2016 R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 1
ContentsTopicPage No.1. Theme 1: Population and Settlement1.1 Population Dynamics1.2 Over-population and under-population1.3: Migration1.4: Population Distribution and Density1.5: Population structure1.6: Rural Settlements1.7: Urban Settlements1.8: Urbanisation1.9: Urban Problems1.10: Urban SprawlTheme 2: The Natural Environment2.1: Plate tectonic movement2.2. Volcanoes2.3 Earthquake2.4 River system2.5 Coastal system2.6 Coral reef2.7 Weather Instruments and measurements2.8 Climate and natural vegetation2.9 Tropical Rainforest2.10 Tropical Hot desertTheme 3: Economic development3.1 Development3.2 Food production – Agricultural system3.3 Food Shortages3.4 Industry3.5 Hi-tech Industry3.6 Tourism3.7 Energy3.8 Water Resources3.9Environmental risks of economic developmentSyllabus 6113120 R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 2
Paper 1: Theme 1 Population and SettlementTopic 1.1: Population dynamicsKey Term:1. The World population in 2011 was 7.0 Billion2. Population: the number of people living in a particular geographical areas3. Population explosion – the rapid growth of world population is known aspopulation explosion. There was a sudden increase of world population is 1950s.4. Population density: the average number of people in a given area per squarekilometer. Or the total number of people living in a square kilometer of land.5. Birth rate: the number of live births per 1000 people in a year6. Death rate: the number of deaths per 1000 people in a year7. Natural increase: the difference between birth and death rate is known asnatural increase.Natural increase Birth rate – Death rate8. Census: an official count of the population at a regular interval.9. Infant mortality rate: the number of death in a year per 1000 children below theage of one10. Life expectancy: the average number of year of a person is expected to live11. Demography: the study of human population, their size, distribution andcomposition.12. Population structure: Age and sex composition of a country population13. Population Pyramid: Is a diagram that shows the proportion of the totalpopulation of sex (male and female) and their age group. The population Pyramidhelps us to judge and predict about the future population.14. Old age group: the age group of 60 years and above is considered as Old15. Young age group: the age group between 14 year and under is considered asyoung16. Working population: the age group between 15 years and 64 year is theworking population17. Ageing population: A population is considered ‘ageing’ when the proportion of‘young’ people is less than 30% and the proportion of Old people is greater than6%18. Young population: a population is considered as ‘young’ when the proportion of‘young’ people is more than 30% and the proportion of ‘Old’ people is less than6% R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 3
19. Over population: when the total number of people living in a country is morethan the available resources in a country is considered as over population. Eg:Nigeria20. Under population: when the total number of people living in a country is lessthan the available resources in a country is considered as under population. Eg:Australia.21. Optimum population: the size of population that permits the full utilization of thenatural resources of an area, giving maximum per capita output and standard ofliving. (the availability of resources are enough for the total population living in acountry)Growth of World populationThe world population refers to the number of people living on earth. There are about 7billion people on the earth in 2011. In 1 AD, the world population was about 200 million.1000 AD a thousand years later, it was 275 million. By 1800 AD, the world populationhad reached 900 million. From then on, it increased very rapidly. The populationexplosion refers to the sharp increase in the world population since 1950, causingconcern over the ability of the earth to provide enough resources for humans. From1960 to 2000, the world population has increased from 3 billion to 6 billion. If this trendcontinues, the world population is expected to reach 11 billion by 2050.World population in 2007 and 20502007CountryPopulation in lations(millions)17471437420297295inFactors influencing population growthPopulation change or growth in a country is affected by the difference between birth rates and death (natural change) and the balance between immigration and emigration (net migration).Factors that encourages high birth rate Early marriages – in some countries, people marry when they are as young as15 years old. Women who marry young are likely to have more children thanthose who marry later. Children are seen as wealth – in some Asian countries, children are regardedas assets because they can help in the farms and bring in additional income fortheir families High number of death among children – in some LEDCs where health careservices are lacking, children die at a very young age. So they have morechildren in case some die early. Lack of knowledge on birth control – people who are ignorant of birth controlmethods may have more children than they really want. People may be ignorantbecause they are illiterate or not well- informed if information on birth control isnot readily available. Preference of male child – some families prefer boys to girls and in their questto have baby boys, they end up having more children than necessary. R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 4
Religious beliefs – some of the religions do not allow use of contraceptives andabortion. Like the Roman Catholic do not allowed doing abortion and the Muslimsallowed to practice polygamy.Demographic Transition ModelThe historical shift of birth and death rate from high to low levels in a population knownas Demographic Transition.The Demographic Transtional Model is a simplification of reality to help us understandthe most important aspects of process. It is a broad generalization about populationgrowth since the middle of the eighteenth century. No country as a whole retains the characteristics of Stage 1 The poorest of the less developed countries are in Stage 2 Most less developed countries which have undergone significant social andeconomical changes are in Stage 3 Some of the newly industralised countries (NIC) such as South Korea andTaiwan are in Stage 4. Some of the countries in Eastern and Southern Europe experience or passthrough Stage 5.Stage 1: High Birth Rate and High Death RateHigh birth rate No birth control or family planning Religious beliefs encourage growth of families (for example: RomanCatholicism does not allow for abortions Early marriage and polygamy – for example the Muslim polygamy Traditional societies encourage large families Considering children as wealth to workHigh Death Rate Diseases like cholera and plague – lack of life saving medicine Famine and poor diet – lack of food crops Poor hygiene, no clean water No sewage disposal – poor infrastructures Lack of medical care – few doctors, hospital and medicine Natural disasters like flood and droughts – lack of disaster management systems. R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 5
Stage 2: High Birth Rate and Falling Death RateHigh birth rate No birth control or family planning Religious beliefs encourage growth of families (for example: Roman Catholicismdoes not allow for abortions Early marriage and polygamy – for example the Muslim polygamy Traditional societies encourage large families Considering children as wealth to workFalling death rate Improved medical care through vaccination, hospitals and doctors Improved sanitation and water supply Improvement of food production Improved transportation facility to move Decreasing child mortality Services of charity organization like Red Cross and UNStage 3: Falling Birth Rate and Falling Death RateFalling Birth Rate Family planning techniques (contraception, sterilisation, abortion) Government population policies (for example: One-child policy of China) Lower infant mortality rate Increasing industralisation and mechanization Improvement in social status for women through education Improvement in prenatal and postnatal care in health centres, reducing infantmortality rateFalling Death Rate Improved medical care through vaccination, hospitals and doctors Improved sanitation and water supply Improvement of food production Improved transportation facility to move Decreasing child mortality Services of charity organization like Red Cross and UNStage 4 and 5: Low Birth Rate and High Death RateLow Birth Rate Changing lifestyles (for example, less marriages and cohabitation) Career-oriented women (not ready to spend more time on family) Late marriages decrease fertility period Good health and family planning Increasing incidents of same-sex relationship Availability of birth control techniquesHigh Death Rate High rates of crimes and spread of viruses Respiratory diseases – like air pollution causes allergies, asthma etc Lifestyle – related diseases such as cancer, obesity, heart problems etc Old age diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease Increasing suicides rates Traffic accidents Clashes, riots, wars etc R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 6
Case Study (anti-natal policy) – One Child Policy in ChinaThe ‘One Child’ Policy is a population control policy of the People’s Republic of China. Itofficially restricts married couples to having more than one c hild. The SpecialAdministrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau and the foreigners living in China arecompletely exempted. This policy was introduced in 1978 and initially to first bornchildren from 1979.Background:During the period of Mao Zedong’s leadership in China, infant mortality declined from227/1000 births in 1949 to 53/1000 in 1981, and life expectancy dramatically increasedfrom around 35 years in 1949 to 65 years in 1976. Until the 1960s, the Governmentencouraged families to have as many children as possible. So the population grew fromaround 540 million in 1949 to 940 million in 1976. Beginning in 1970, citizens wereencouraged to marry late and have only two children.The policy: To address overpopulation, the policy had been planned in 1977, although it wasnot mandated until 1979. The policy was introduced to promote one child families and forbids coupleshaving more children in urban areas. Parents with multiple children are not given the same benefits as parents of onechild In most cases, wealthy families pay a fee to the government in order to have asecond child or more children. The limit has been strongly enforced in urban areas, but the actualimplementation varies in locations In most rural areas, families are allowed to apply to have a second child if theirfirst-born is a daughter or suffers from physically disability, mental illness, ormental retardation Families violating the policy are required to pay penalties and may possibly bedenied bonuses at their workplace. Children born in overseas countries are not counted under the policy if they donot obtain Chinese citizenship Chinese citizens returning from abroad are allowed to have a second child.Positive Impacts: The authorities claim that the policy has prevented more than 400 million birthsfrom about 1979 to 2011. The individuals saving rate has increased since the one-child policy wasintroduced The fertility rate in China fell from 2.63 birth per woman in 1980 to 1.61 in 2009 The focus on population control provided better health service for women andreduction in risks associated with pregnancy. At family planning offices, women received free contraception and pre-natalclasses R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 7
Negative Impacts: The policy has been implicated in an increase in forced abortions, infanticide,and underreporting of female births The sex-ratio at birth in China reached 1170:1000 in the year 2000, substantiallyhigher than the natural baseline, which ranges between 1030:1000 and 107:100due to the preference for a boy child Little Emperor syndrome – as some parents over-indulge their only child he maybecome unadjusted to the society Resulted into Gender-selected abortion, abandonment, and infanticide Since there are no penalties for multiples births, couples turned to fertilitymedicine to have twins. According to a 2006 China Daily report, the number oftwins born per year in China had doubled. Government officials and especially wealthy persons have often been able toviolate the policy in spite of fines.According to a 1968 proclamation of the International Conference on Human Rights,“Parents have a basic human rights to determine freely and responsibly the number andthe spacing of their children. Nonetheless, a 2008 survey undertaken by the PewResearch Center reported that 76% of the Chinese population supports the policy. .REVISION QUESTIONS1. What is meant by birth rate?The average number of births per 1000 of the population in a year2. Explain why there are high birth rates in many LEDCs.Ideas such as: little availability of/lack of/can’t afford contraception/birth control/familyplanning/or examples; not educated re: contraception/family planning; likely to want children to work on the land/on farms/free labour for the family; likely to want children to send out to earn money/work; likely to want children to help around the house/look after younger children/collectwater; likely to want children to look after parents in old age; not likely to be affected by government policy to reduce family size; likely to have large families due to tradition/wealth/to get a son; likely to have large families due to religious influences/ religion does not allowcontraception; no access to abortion; high infant mortality rates/people have morechildren in the hope that some will survive; women stay in the home/don’t work; earlymarriage; lack of emancipation for women; etc.3. Describe the problems caused by high natural population growth in LEDCs.Ideas such as: poverty; people do not have enough resources/pressure on resources; pressure on energy supplies (or example); lack of work/high unemployment; inadequate food supplies/food shortages/malnutrition/starvation; poor access toeducation/government spend more on education/not enough schools; poor access to health care/government spend more on healthcare/not enoughhospitals; overcrowded housing/homeless/growth of shanty towns/lack of living space; inadequate water supply/sanitation; overuse of agricultural land/overgrazing/lack ofland to farm; deforestation/loss of natural vegetation; impact on economy/GDP falls,slows; specified pollution problems; increased traffic congestion; etc. R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 8
4. Describe policies which governments can use to reduce birth rates.Ideas such as; introduce anti-natalist policies; one child policy/limit number of babies/restrict numberof children; advertise the benefits of small families; educate people about contraception; legalise abortion; make (free) contraceptives available; examples of specific incentives(e.g. free education, free health care); introduce pensions for elderly; examples of disincentives if have a 2nd child e.g. fines, lose jobs; reduce benefits for people having children e.g. reduced maternity leave/childbenefit/child tax credits; forced sterilization; free goods e.g. radios in India; educatewomen to encourage them to take jobs or careers; marriage regulations e.g. latemarriage/seek permission; gender equality acts; etc.5. Explain why there are low death rates in MEDCsIdeas such as: good health care/enough hospitals/doctors/nurses/clinics; good sanitation/morehygienic; good access to safe/clean water sufficient food supplies innoculation against manydisease/drugs/medicines/cures for diseases; education re healthcare/life style issuesavailability of pensions; specific provision for elderly (or examples)Case study: Niger: A country with high growth rate of populationThe Republic of Niger is a land-locked country in West Africa named after the Niger River. Itsclimate is mainly very hot and dry with many desert areas. It is an LEDC, and is one of thepoorest countries in the world.The population of Niger has grown from 1.7 millions in 1960 to over 13 millions in 2008. With ahigh population growth rate of 2.9% it is expected to reach 56 millions by 2050. Niger has thehighest fertility rate in the world with 7.1 births per woman.Literacy rate is only 28.7% and the population below the poverty line is 63%. About 90% of thetotal workforce is engaged in agriculture; industry 6% and services 4%. The birth rate is 49.6and the death rate is 20.3.If the people of Niger remain uninformed about the family planning, by 2050, it will beimpossible for the government to provide adequate health, education, jobs and water. For poorfamilies, children are a s source of wealth.Consequences of high rate of population growth Overcrowding – high rate of population growth may cause overcrowding. In somecities, people live in a congested shanty towns or squatters due to inadequate housing.When people live in such a condition, diseases can spread easily due to lack ofinfrastructures.Shortage of food – despite technological advancements in agricultural production, localfood supply cannot meet the increasing demand. Due to high pressure on farmland,many fields become over cultivated.Pressure on social services – in most of the LEDCs there is a great pressure inproviding medical services and education to meet the growing population. R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 9
Unemployment and other social problems – the farmers earn a low income in theLEDCs due to lack of land availability and infrastructures. As the population grows, thefarmland will be over cultivated resulting to decline in production. There is also noenough job opportunities in the cities. When some people cannot support themselveswith proper jobs, some may turn to crime.Topic 1.2 Over-population and under-population1. Over population: when the total number of people living in a country is morethan the available resources in a country is considered as over population. Eg:Nigeria2. Under population: when the total number of people living in a country is lessthan the available resources in a country is considered as under population. Eg:Australia.3. Optimum population: the size of population that permits the full utilization of thenatural resources of an area, giving maximum per capita output and standard ofliving. (the availability of resources are enough for the total population living in acountry)Case study 1:Niger: Over-populated countryThe Republic of Niger is a land-locked country in West Africa named after the Niger River. Itsclimate is mainly very hot and dry with many desert areas. It is an LEDC, and is one of thepoorest countries in the world.The population of Niger has grown from 1.7 millions in 1960 to over 13 millions in
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