Teenage Motivations For And Barriers To Volunteering In Conservation .
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum Teenage Motivations for and Barriers to Volunteering in Conservation Proposed Journal for Publication: Conservation Letters Abstract Volunteers play a key role in biodiversity conservation in the United States and abroad. However, volunteerism is declining in the US. For environmental organizations to continue to rely upon volunteer workers to attain conservation objectives, they must appeal to new volunteers, retain existing volunteers, and increase participation frequency. To do so, they must minimize the barriers to volunteering and capitalize upon community members’ existing motivations to volunteer. This study explores the barriers and motivations to volunteering, specific to high schoolers, in order to retain volunteers from their teens into their twenties and increase overall rates of environmental volunteering. We found that the strongest motivation for joining a volunteer opportunity was the need to fulfill service hours. However, service hours were not a strong motivation for returning, and the need for service hours was a minor reason individuals stated as being “very likely” to volunteer again. Instead, students were motivated to return because of the people and their desire to help the environment. Thus, the need for service hours can result in a sustained prosocial behavior. The most prevalent barriers to volunteering were students being unaware of volunteer opportunities or not having time to commit to volunteering. Conservation organizations can mitigate these barriers by highlighting the benefits of volunteering and addressing the ways to overcome barriers to involvement. 1
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum Introduction Volunteers play a key role in biodiversity conservation in the United States and abroad. In a field where funding is frequently scarce, volunteers provide the manpower necessary to attain conservation objectives. This trend is particularly apparent in populous urban areas (Asah & Blahna 2012). Unpaid citizen enthusiasts further biological conservation by contributing to citizen science data collection projects (Cooper, et al. 2007), disseminating knowledge across the general public (Evely, et al. 2011), modeling conservation behaviors (Lee 2011), and assisting with habitat restoration efforts (Berger 1990). Previous studies have confirmed that volunteering for environmental initiatives shifts broader attitudes towards sustainability and conservation (Measham & Barnett 2008). Volunteerism, however, is declining in the United States (BLS 2016). For environmental organizations to continue to rely upon volunteer workers to attain conservation objectives, they must appeal to new volunteers, retain existing volunteers, and increase participation frequency (Asah & Blahna 2012). Such organizations thus strive to minimize the barriers to volunteering and capitalize upon community members’ existing motivations to volunteer. Existing research has identified desires to help the environment, defend one’s ego, leverage volunteering for career or learning opportunities, build community, and interact with others as potential motivators for joining environmental volunteer initiatives (Asah & Blahna 2013). In general, volunteering serves personal and social functions, as learning opportunities and building a community exemplify (Clary and Snyder 1999). The personal and social benefits that volunteers receive motivate continued participation in these initiatives. People are more likely to engage in sustained environmental volunteerism if doing so helps them feel less guilty about anthropogenic environmental issues and if doing so 2
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum allows them to socialize with like-minded people (Asah & Blahna 2012). Furthermore, research has indicated that sustained “prosocial action is attributed to internal characteristics” (Sobus 1995), rather than external pressures, and that sustained volunteering is more likely when volunteer opportunities meet individual goals and desires (Clary et al. 1992). Barriers to environmental volunteering are diverse and context-dependent. Potential barriers include community members being unaware of volunteer opportunities, feeling insufficiently knowledgeable to contribute effectively to conservation work, or not perceiving environmental volunteering as comparably fulfilling to volunteering in other sectors (Pillemer, et al. 2009). Research has indicated that, to increase volunteer participation, it is important to communicate the benefits of volunteering to community members and address the ways to overcome barriers to involvement (Wilson et al. 2008). Despite the national downward trend overall, volunteerism remains steady among teenagers sixteen to nineteen years old. However, adults 20 to 25 years old display the lowest rates of volunteering for any age group (BLS 2016). Thus, retaining volunteers from their teens into their twenties poses a significant opportunity for increasing rates of environmental volunteering. Doing so, however, requires understanding the barriers and motivations specific to these age groups, rather than the general public more broadly. McDougle, et al. (2011) illuminated the barriers and motivations specific to environmental volunteering among university-aged young adults. Social aspects of volunteering, such as the opportunity to meet new people, are the strongest predictors of whether and how frequently university-aged adults volunteered with environmental organizations. However, research specific to teenage motivations and barriers to volunteering with conservation organizations remains lacking. How to attract teenage volunteers and sustain their volunteerism as they become young adults 3
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum therefore remains poorly understood. To address this gap in the literature, we set out to determine what motivates high school students to volunteer with a conservation organization, what motivates them to continue to volunteer after their first experience, and what barriers exist that prevent volunteering. Methods Research Site We addressed our research questions by examining a case study of high school volunteer work for a conservation-focused organization. This organization, Grassroots Ecology, is an environmental non-profit in the San Francisco Bay Area whose mission is to engage and educate the public to restore local ecosystems. The organization coordinates volunteers of all ages to restore habitats in 26 sites throughout the southern San Francisco Bay Area. The Youth Stewards Program (YSP) is Grassroots Ecology’s principal public education initiative. It runs as a summertime and after-school program designed to provide local high school students with an opportunity to engage in outdoor work, learn about the environment, meet new people, and make a significant contribution to the community. The YSP operates in three locations: Stulsaft Park in Redwood City, Arastradero Preserve in Palo Alto, and McClellan Ranch in Cupertino. These locations cater to students from Woodside High School, Palo Alto High School, and Monta Vista High School, respectively. We focused our study on the autumn 2018 sessions of the YSP at McClellan Park and Arastradero Preserve. During this term, the YSP at McClellan Ranch held weekly 1.5-hour sessions while the YSP at Arastradero Preserve held biweekly two-hour sessions. McClellan Ranch consistently drew ten to twenty students per session, whereas attendance at Arastradero 4
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum surpassed five students only at the session in which we conducted our survey. Each location had a distinct set of two to three educators. Both YSP sites allow students to attend sessions as they please, whether on a one-off, sporadic, or regular basis. Henceforth, we will refer to students attending a session the first time as “joining” the program, and attending a session after their first session as “returning” to the program. Joining the program does not imply that students are obligated to attend further sessions. “Attending” will refer to either joining or returning. Survey design We designed a survey consisting of four open-ended questions to assess the reasons students join the YSP, the reasons some students return each week, and the barriers that prevented students from attending previously (Appendix A). Survey questions mirrored those used in published barrier and motivation literature from various disciplines (e.g., Ebben & Brudzynski (2008) and Eikenberry & Chery (2004)). Stanford Professor Nicole Ardoin reviewed survey questions for face validity. Survey administration We administered the same survey, printed on a single sheet of loose leaf paper, to students at both study sites. We surveyed students at Arastradero Preserve on Tuesday, November 27th, 2018 and at McClellan Ranch on Friday, November 30th, 2018. At each location, we administered the surveys as a final component of the day’s programming. Students at Arastradero spent the preceding session time planting native herbaceous plants, while students 5
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum at McClellan Ranch spent the preceding session time weeding areas where they had previously planted herbs. At both study sites, all students in attendance completed the questionnaire. Coding survey data We collected thirteen responses from McClellan Ranch and nine responses from Arastradero Preserve. We typed the responses to each survey in individual documents and uploaded the data into NVivo, a qualitative analysis data software program. We coded the text into themes that arose from the survey responses. Prominent themes include status at the YSP (first time or returner), motivations for joining the YSP, motivations for returning to the YSP, the likelihood of returning to the YSP in the future, and barriers for attending the YSP. Data analysis Once we coded all the interviews in Nvivo, we identified trends within each theme (e.g., within the theme “motivations for returning to the YSP,” we identified recurring answers across participants’ responses). We also used NVivo to draw connections between themes. Doing so allowed us to determine what initially motivated people who are “very likely” to return to the program to join in the first place. To conduct this analysis, we used the matrix coding query function in Nvivo. Fore more details on the matrix coding query and basic data analysis in NVivo, see Appendix B. 6
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum Results Barriers to Attending At Arastradero, eight of the nine respondents noted barriers that prevented them from attending previously. The two most prevalent barriers were scheduling conflicts with the program and not knowing about the program previously (Appendix C). At McClellan, four individuals noted barriers that prevented them from attending previously. They cited three barriers to attending: not knowing about the program before, not having time to commit to the program, and having just moved to the area (Appendix C). Motivations for Joining the First Time Across both YSP locations, the strongest motivation for joining was the need to complete service hours for school or college admissions (Appendix D). For the Arastradero YSP, a class field trip to the site motivated many students to join. At McClellan, many students were motivated to join because a school garden club promoted the program. Among individuals who were joining the Arastradero YSP for the first time, logging community service hours was the primary motivation for joining. Among students who had attended a previous Arastradero YSP session and returned to this one, initial motivators for joining the program included both community service hours and the class field trip (Appendix E). At the McClellan YSP, new participants in the program referenced logging community service hours and promotion by the school garden club as their primary motivations for joining. Students returning to the YSP referenced service hours, an interest in the environment, and previous experience in nature as their initial reasons for joining the program (Appendix F). 7
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum Motivations for Returning At Arastradero, six of the nine respondents were at the YSP for the first time. Thus, only three respondents noted their motivation for returning. These three responses were as follow: (i) “Service requirement, but it was also just fun the first time” (ii) “Service hours for class enjoyed helping last time” (iii) “I really enjoyed planting, it was a great time with friends.” (Appendix G). At McClellan, seven of the thirteen participants were returners. The seven individuals returning cited a number of motivations for coming back including the desire to spend time in nature, meet new people, learn more, and help the environment (Appendix G). Likelihood of returning Of the nine responses we collected at Arastradero, six individuals expressed a high likelihood of returning, two individuals expressed a low likelihood, and one claimed it would “depend.” The final individual noted he would only return if he needed additional community service hours. Of the two individuals “not likely” to come back, one provided a reason: she is very busy with senior year and college applications. Of the six participants “very likely” to return, the most frequent rationale was to engage in more planting activities (Appendix H). Of the thirteen responses we collected at McClellan, seven individuals expressed a high likelihood of returning, three expressed a moderate likelihood, and one expressed a low likelihood. Two claimed “it would depend” whether or not they would be able to return. These two individuals would return to the program over summer, but had scheduling conflicts during the school year. The one individual unlikely to return cited being too busy. The seven individuals “very likely” to return and the three “moderately likely” cited similar reasons for wanting to 8
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum attend another session. Both groups referenced friends, helping the environment, and the fun and exciting nature of the program (Appendix H). Initial draw to the program and likelihood to return At Arastradero, students who are “very likely” to return to the program initially joined to complete service hours and because of the field trip they attended at Arastradero. At McClellan, students who are “very likely” to return to the program were initially drawn by the need for service hours and being part of a school club that promoted the YSP program (Appendix I). Discussion Barriers to Attending Participants at McClellan listed logical barriers to attending, including not having time to attend and not knowing about the program. However, small sample size limited our insights into barriers at McClellan. The small sample size reflects a limitation of our survey design that future research may address. The question focusing on barriers, as presented to the students at McClellan read, “If this is your first time attending the youth stewards program, what motivated you to attend today? What elements may have prevented you from attending previously? If this is not your first time attending, what has motivated you to keep coming back each Friday?” Students frequently skimmed this block of text and failed to answer all parts of the question, including what prevented them from attending previously. A typical answer to this question is 9
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum demonstrated in this response: “Yes, this is my first time, and getting volunteer hours was why I came.” At Arastradero, we printed distinct survey sheets for newcomers and returners. We asked newcomers: “If this is your first time attending the youth stewards program, what motivated you to attend today? What elements may have prevented you from attending previously?” This shorter question yielded more responses than at McClellan. The responses reiterated the barriers that the four respondents at McClellan mentioned, except students also discussed the poor timing of the program. Palo Alto High School recently adjusted its bell schedule without notifying Grassroots Ecology, which resulted in the timing of the Arastradero YSP becoming incompatible with the Palo Alto school day. While this result has few ramifications outside of our study site, it highlights how a lack of communication between volunteer-based organizations and community groups (e.g., schools) creates barriers to volunteering. Motivations for Joining the First Time Logging service hours is one of the strongest factors motivating students to join the YSP, at both Arastradero and McClellan. This finding reflects the growing trend in high schools mandating that students complete volunteer hours (Niemi, et al. 2000). A higher proportion of references to required service hours at Arastradero, compared to McClellan, may indicate why Arastradero struggles to maintain solid attendance. Research has indicated that, “when people see their behavior as externally controlled they will possess less intrinsic motivation to undertake the compelled activity” (Sobus 1995). 10
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum Alternatively, when individuals view an experience as benefiting them, they are more motivated to get involved. Research indicates that volunteering can serve six main functions, one of which is social. This social function holds that “volunteering allows an individual to strengthen his or her social relationships” and that people are more motivated to volunteer when fellow volunteers share their interests (Clary and Snyder 1999). The power of social groups and relationships, therefore, explains why so many first time attendees to the McClellan program were motivated to join because of a school club. Unlike first-time participants, very few students returning to the McClellan program were initially motivated to join because of the school club. Instead, more returning students noted being initially drawn to the program for environmental reasons. It is important to consider how survey design and implementation impacted these results, especially due to the recall effect. Recall effect refers to the ability of respondents to recall information. In oral interviews, the interviewer can “utilize a range of techniques to prompt memory” which is not possible in selfadministered settings such as our surveys (Bowling 2005). Therefore, it is possible that students who routinely attend McClellan were not able to specifically isolate what initially motivated them to join. Instead, these students may have written about elements that routinely motivate them to come back, or elements they now associate with the program (namely, the environment). At Arastradero, the sample size of first time attendees was double that of returners. Therefore, it follows that the diversity of motivations for joining the program was greater for first time individuals than returners. Additionally, the motivations for joining the program were more similar between first time and returning students at Arastradero than at McClellan. Returners at Arastradero were generally back for their second session, whereas returners at McClellan had 11
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum been enrolled in the program for a longer time period. Thus, the recall effect likely exerted less influence on responses at Arastradero. Motivations for returning Service hours are one of the primary factors motivating students to join the YSP at both Arastradero and McClellan (Appendix D). At Arastradero, service hours remained a driving factor influencing individuals to return to the program, but diminished in importance for returners at McClellan (Appendix G). Returners at Arastradero were only there for their second session, and thus their motivations for joining the program and returning to the program likely aligned. At McClellan, however, educators noted that returners had attended some or all of the previous eight YSP sessions. Research has indicated that, over time, motivations for volunteering can shift such that the initial motivations to volunteer (e.g., the need for service hours) may differ from those sustaining continued action (Penner 2004). Due to the longer nature of the McClellan participants’ involvement with the program, it is more likely that their motivations for returning to the program differed from their initial motivation to join the program, as they built relationships with educators, fellow participants, and the program site. Likelihood of returning Two of nine respondents from Arastradero noted they would likely not return, however only one of them provided a reason. This student stated that they were not likely to come back because, “I’m busy with senior year and college apps so I don’t have much time.” This statement attests to a trend wherein the transition to adulthood disrupts more robust volunteering patterns among younger individuals (Oesterle et al. 2004). There is therefore value in promoting the 12
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum program to younger high schoolers, as cultivating a sustained relationship with these students may encourage them to continue participating through this transition period. At McClellan, only one of thirteen respondents noted they were not likely to return because they had other commitments. Extracurricular programs will always compete with one another and it is inevitable to lose certain students due to a busy schedule. The majority of students at both sites claim to be “very likely” to come back. The motivators for returning often differ from what initially drew participants to join the program. Service hours plays a small role in convincing individuals to come back, whereas people play a large role. As with motivations for joining the program, this difference exemplifies the social function of volunteering (Clary and Snyder 1999). Initial draw to the program and likelihood to return Among students who indicated they were “very likely” to return to another YSP session, at both Arastradero and McClellan, service hours was among the largest initial motivator to join the program, but not a primary motivator for returning in the future (Appendix I). This trend demonstrates that the need for service hours can result in a sustained prosocial behavior. This finding complicates research that suggests mandated volunteer hours diminish future intentions to volunteer (Stukas et al. 1999). The YSP appears to solicit sustained prosocial behavior among participants who are initially motivated to join to log service hours, but who continually return for other reasons. In these instances, students’ motivation shifts from one that is external, the need for service hours, to one that is internal. One respondent aptly highlights this shift. In response to what initially drew them to join the program the student responded, “I am volunteering for a club at school to get volunteer hours.” When asked about likelihood to return 13
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum they stated, “I'm coming back next week. For sure. I've met a lot of great people and learned a lot.” This supports research which found that continued “prosocial action is attributed to internal characteristics,” rather than external pressures (Sobus 1995). Limitations Survey format As noted in the barriers to attendance section of the discussion, the way we formatted our survey may not have been conducive to collecting all the data we were interested in obtaining. For instance the second question of the McClellan survey, administered on 11/30, read, “If this is your first time attending the youth stewards program, what motivated you to attend today? What elements may have prevented you from attending previously? If this is not your first time attending, what has motivated you to keep coming back each Friday?” Students frequently skimmed this block of text and failed to answer all parts of the question. Future surveys may benefit from separating questions for newcomers and returners or creating separate survey sheets for the two groups, which we did for Arastradero, and it proved to be valuable. Coding and Data Analysis Coding survey responses is a subjective process complicated by the fact that language and word choice varies from person to person. The challenge arises during analysis in NVivo when researchers try to find themes and trends by effectively grouping statements together. 14
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum An example of this challenge follows. One student directly stated, “I like playing a part in trying to help the environment” as their motivation for attending the program. Another student wrote that they enjoyed “making an impact in local parks.” These could have been coded separately, the first in a node called “helping environment” and the second in a node called “impact.” However, the point of data analysis and coding in NVivo is to draw trends within the data (Bazeley and Jackson 2013). Therefore, researchers make judgment calls as to how best to interpret and group data. In this case, we made the judgment call to code these two ideas in the same node entitled “helping environment,” since having an impact on local parks inherently helps the environment. It is evident, therefore, that through the coding process we occasionally abstracted certain individual responses or grouped them with a theme that may not have closely matched the individual’s original intention. When working with survey data, however, it is nearly impossible to avoid this challenge. Sample Size The small sample size likewise complicated the process of identifying patterns and themes in the data. Therefore, all trends as noted in this project are simply hypotheses that future studies may corroborate with an increased sample size and repeated surveys. Conclusion Across both YSP locations, the strongest motivation for joining was the need to fulfill service hours. Nevertheless, motivations for returning, especially at McClellan, did not depend on service hours, and the need for service hours was a minor reason individuals stated as being “very likely” to come back. Instead, students were motivated to return because of the people and 15
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum their desire to help the environment, which aligns with key motivations for volunteering found in past research (Asah & Blahna 2013). Furthermore, among students who indicated they were “very likely” to return to another YSP session, logging service hours was among the largest motivator for joining, but not among the largest motivators for returning. These results demonstrate that environmental organizations can capitalize upon volunteering requirements to cultivate a consistent cohort of teenage volunteers. As participants build relationships within the volunteering community, they will gain internal motivations to attend. Future research will investigate how these motivations persist as participants age. Moving forward, studies across various sites will further illuminate the barriers and motivations to high schoolers volunteering with conservation organizations. Semi-structured interviews with volunteers who consistently volunteer at the same site or with the same organization will reveal what aspects of the work inspire these volunteers to return. These findings will help organizations design volunteer programs that most effectively engage and retain volunteers. It will, nonetheless, be critical for organizations to consistently evaluate their programs, as individuals can be motivated to return by varying needs (Clary et al. 1992). Additionally, it will be important to survey more individuals who were initially drawn to volunteer by the need for service hours who now volunteer as continued prosocial behavior. This study demonstrated that this shift is possible, despite academic contentions that mandated volunteer hours diminish future intentions to volunteer (Stukas et al. 1999). Future studies will elucidate why and how this shift occurs for certain volunteers, and how to foster it in a larger proportion of volunteers. Incorporating data from these studies will allow volunteer-based conservation organizations to continue to protect biodiversity across the United States despite their low budgets. 16
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum Acknowledgments Many thanks to a number of Grassroots Ecology staff, including Melisa, Rachel, Kristen, Daria, Kathleen, Gabe, and Emma, who made this study possible. Thanks also to Stanford affiliates Rachel Engstrand, Briana Swette, and Nicole Ardoin, who provided integral support for our study. 17
Matt Benjamin & Ali Hoffer Open Space Management Practicum Works Cited Asah, Stanley T., and Dale J. Blahna. "Motivational functionalism and urban conservation stewardship: implications for volunteer involvement." Conservation Letters 5.6 (2012): 470-477. Asah, Stanley T., and Dale J. Blahna. "Practical implications of understanding the influence of motivations on commitment to voluntary urban conservation stewardship." Conservation Biology 27.4 (2013): 866-875. Bazeley, Pat, and Kristi Jackson. Qualitative Data Analysis with Nvivo. London: SAGE Publications, 2013. Web. Berger, John, ed. Environmental restoration: science and strategies for restoring the Earth. Island Press, 1990. Bowling, Ann. "Mode of questionnaire administration can have serious effects on data quality." Journal of Public health 27.3 (2005): 281-291 Bureau of Labor Statistics. "Volunteering in the United States
Doing so, however, requires understanding the barriers and motivations specific to these age groups, rather than the general public more broadly. McDougle, et al. (2011) illuminated the barriers and motivations specific to environmental volunteering among university-aged young adults. Social aspects of volunteering, such as the opportunity to meet
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5.1 Causes of Teenage Pregnancy 7 5.2 Prevention of Teenage Pregnancy 10 5.3 HIV/AIDS and Teenage Pregnancy 12 5.4 Level of Awareness Regarding Teenage Pregnancy and HIV/AIDS 12 5.5 Guidance and Counselling Support 14 5.6 Support Services available for schoolgirl mothers during pregnancy and afterwards 16 6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .
Still, approximately 900,000 US teenage women 15-19 years of age (including 52,592 New Yorkers) were pregnant in 1996. Teenage births are considered a major contributing factor to poverty and welfare dependence as a growing proportion of teenage mothers are unwed and more than half of welfare spending goes to families formed by a teenage birth (8).
Teenage Pregnancy 1 Why the focus on Teenage Pregnancy? According to a review of Teenage Pregnancy in South Africa (2013), 30% of teenagers reported to have been pregnant at a stage and the majority of them had an unplanned pregnancy. Rates of teenage pregnancies are high, especially amongst 18-19 year olds and a large
INTRODUCTION TEENAGE PREGNANCY AND LOOKED AFTER CHILDREN/CARE LEAVERS: RESOURCE FOR TEENAGE PREGNANCY CO-ORDINATORS The Resource In September 2001, Barnardo's was commissioned by the Teenage Pregnancy Unit (TPU) to develop material for Teenage Pregnancy Co-ordinators, which
Teenage births as a share of the total births have also declined, further emphasising the reduction among The vast majority of teenage births are to 17, 18 and 19 year olds. In 2020, births to mothers aged 17 to 19 accounted for 93% of teenage births. Figure 1: Teenage birth rate (per 1,000 population aged 15-19 years3) in Ireland 2000-2020
cent of all teenage births in 2006, to 28.4 per cent in 2013. Births to teenage mothers are increasingly occurring during the older teenage years. Almost three-quarters (71.6%) of all teenage births in 2013 were to 18 and 19 year olds (up from 66.6% in 2006). Few young teenagers have a second child before they are 20 years old
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