ISLAMIC GUNPOWDER EMPIRES - Denton ISD

ISLAMICGUNPOWDEREMPIRESEARLY MODERN ISLAM1450 TO 1750

DYNASTIC STATEThe Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal rulers and IslamAll three Islamic empires were military creationsCalled Gunpowder empires as guns were critical to rise of empireMilitary prowess of rulers, elite units criticalAuthority of dynasty derived from personal pietyDevotion to Islam led rulers to extend faith to new landsSteppe traditionsAll three were Turkish in origin; two were ShiaAutocratic: emperors imposed their will on the stateOngoing problems with royal successionOttoman rulers legally killed brothers after taking the throneRoyal women often wielded great influence on politicsWives, sisters, daughters, aunts, mother of sultan lived in haremEunuchs protected women; both eunuchs, women had influenceChildren raised in harem; often not allowed out until teenagerHarem politics: women often influenced policies, selections

MAP: THE MUSLIM WORLD

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, 1566

RISE OF OTTOMAN EMPIREAnatolian clan of the Seljuk TurksFrontier Emirate Founded 1289Founder was Osman BeyLed Muslim religious warriors (ghazi)Ottoman expansion into Byzantine empireSeized city of Bursa, then into the BalkansOrganized ghazi into formidable military machineCentral role of the Janissaries (slave troops)Effective use of gunpowder in battles and sieges14th – 15th Century Expanded into S. E. EuropeConquered Bulgaria, Serbia, Albania, GreeceWould have conquered Byzantines early except for TimurlaneEstablished the devshirmeMehmed the Conqueror (reigned 1451-1481)Captured Constantinople in 1453Renamed city Istanbul, the Ottoman capitalAbsolute monarchy; centralized stateExpanded to Serbia, Greece, AlbaniaAttacked Italy

TURKISH SOCIAL STRUCTUREFour social groupings in settled, urban environmentThe men of the penJudges, imams (prayer leaders), other intellectualsUnder Suleyman, became the empire’s bureaucratsLater split into men of the pen and men of religionMen of the sword: militaryMen of negotiations, such as merchantsMen of husbandry: farmers, livestock raisersLife on the frontier was far less structuredSociety there was divided into two groupsAskeri (the military)Consisted of the men of pen, religion, swordProtected the realm, rayaConquered new territoriesRaya (the subjects)In the early daysPossible for raya to cross over, become askeriThrough outstanding military serviceOver timeSeparation between askeri and raya became more rigidMilitary became almost hereditaryWomen had no rights aside from tradition, class, husbands’ wishes

TIMAR AND LAND SURVEYTimar systemAskeri was given a share of the agricultural taxes of a designated regionUsually consisting of several villagesIn return for military service as cavalryman, assisted in provincial governmentThose who were given such grants were called timarlýLike other askeri, they were exempt from taxation.Values of timars varied, military obligation attached to the timar variedAt height Ottomans put more than 100,000 cavalrymen into the fieldGradually became hereditaryTimar was not feudalismTimar-holder did not dispense justiceJustice was the sultan’s prerogativeEuropean feudalismGovernment on local levelIn absence of central governmentIn Ottoman EmpireCentral government was active and crucialTimar more like Japanese shogun fief systemTahrirThe tahrir took place when a new area was conqueredTeam of officials surveyed, recorded by sanjakNames of all adult male farmersAll sources of wealth in the areaTheir yields and the taxes paid on them

GHULAMA ghulam was a slaveAn old Muslim traditionBy definition, the slave was a non-MuslimEducated and trained for state serviceSimilar to the Mameluk systemOttomans modified the ghulam system by the infamous devshirmeYoung Christian males between the ages of 8 and 15Were removed from villages in the Balkans to be trained for state serviceYouths were brought before the sultanBest of themIn terms of physique, intelligence, other qualitiesWere selected for education in the palace schoolThey converted to IslamBecame versed in the Islam, its cultureLearned Ottoman Turkish, Persian, and ArabicWere trained in the military and social artsOwed absolute allegiance to the sultanWere destined for the highest offices in the empireThose not selected for the palace schoolConverted to Islam, worked for rural Turkish farmersLearned vernacular Turkish, folk Islamic cultureBecame sultan’s elite infantry: Janissaries.

SULEYMAN THEMAGNIFICENTEmpire at its height under SuleymanReigned 1520-1566Son of Sultan Selim the GrimMother was ChristianCame to power through murder of brothersConquered lands in Europe, Asia, AfricaConquered Syria, Holy Land, EgyptConquered Hungary, Croatia, RumaniaSiege of Vienna in 1529 failedBuilt powerful navy to rule MediterraneanConquered Rhodes from Knights of St. JohnBesieged Malta but did not conquer itEncouraged development of artsBeautified Constantinople with mosquesEmpire began a slow decline after Suleyman

THE TURKISH MILLETEach milletWas headed by its own religious dignitaryChief rabbi in the case of the JewsPatriarchs for the Greek Orthodox, Armenian communitiesHeads of millet were responsible to Turkish sultanAdvised sultan on affairs in the communityWas punished by sultan for problems of the communityLater expanded to other ethnic communitiesMuslims had not milletMuslims ruled by Quran, shariaIn the millet systemEach community was responsible forThe allocation and collection of its taxesIts educational arrangementsInternal legal matters pertaining to marriage, divorce, inheritanceIn the pre-modern Middle EastIdentity was largely based on religionSystem functioned well until rise of European nationalismMost cities were divided into quarters based on religion, language

SAFAVID PERSIATurkish conquerors of Persia and MesopotamiaFounder Shah Ismail (reigned 1501-1524)Claimed ancient Persian title of shah.Proclaimed Twelver Shiism official religionImposed it on Sunni populationFollowers were qizilbash (or "Red Hats")Twelver ShiismTraced origins to 12 ancient Shiite imamsIsmail believed to be twelfth, or "hidden," imamBattle of Chaldiran (1514)Sunni Ottomans persecuted Shiites within Ottoman empireQizilbash considered firearms unmanly; lost battleShah Abbas the Great (1588-1629)Revitalized the Safavid empireModernized militarySought European alliancesPermitted European merchants, missionariesNew capital at IsfahanCentralized administration

MUGHAL EMPIRETamerlame was direct predecessorBabur (1523-1530)Founder of Mughal ("Mongol") dynasty in IndiaCentral Asian Turk invaded India in 1523Seized Delhi in 1526By 1530, Mughal empire embraced most of IndiaAkbar (reigned 1556-1605)A brilliant charismatic rulerCreated centralized, absolutist governmentExpanded to Gujurat, Bengal, S. IndiaEncouraged religious toleranceBetween Muslims and HindusEmployed Hindus in his governmentDeveloped a syncretic religion called "divine faith“Eliminated head tax on Hindus, banned satiAurangzeb (1659-1707)Expanded the empire to almost the entire Indian subcontinentRevoked policies of toleration: Hindus taxed, temples destroyedHis rule troubled by religious tensions and hostilityArrival of Europeans: permitted them to trade, establish bases

MAP OF THE MUGHAL STATE

COMMERCE & DEMOGRAPHYFood cropsAgriculture: the basis of all three empiresMajor crops: wheat, riceLittle impacted by new American cropsImports of coffee, tobacco very popularCoffee discovered in Jaffa Province (Ethiopia)Coffee houses developed, a major social traditionPeasantsTended to be overtaxed, overworked by noblesMany so mistreated that they abandoned their landsDemographicsPopulation growth less dramatic than in China, EuropeIndia: significant growth due to intense agricultureLess dramatic growth in Safavid and Ottoman realmsAll empires were multi-national, multi-religiousCommerceLong-distance trade important to all three empiresMinorities controlled trade in all three states in trade diasporasTrade goods tended to be traditional arts, crafts; little manufacturingOttomans, Safavids shared parts of east-west trade routesSafavids offered silk, carpets, ceramics to EuropeansMughal empires less attentive to foreign or maritime tradingMughals permitted stations for English, French, DutchEuropeans gradually exclude Indian influence

RELIGIOUS AFFAIRSReligious diversityCreated challenges to rule of empiresUniformity hard with religious differencesReligious minoritiesGenerally tolerated in Islamic statesIn Ottoman empireConquered peoples protected, granted religious, civil autonomyOrganized into quasi-legal millets to regulate own affairsMuch of population was Christian, JewishEach communities had own millet which handled judicial affairsIn IndiaMajority of population was HinduEarly Muslim rulers closely cooperated with Hindu majorityUnder Aurangzeb: Islam proclaimed state religion, nonbelievers taxedIn PersiaShia were fanaticalEnforced articles of faithReligious diversity in India under the rule of AkbarAkbar encouraged religious toleranceAdvocated syncretic "divine faith“ called Din i-ilahiEmphasizing loyalty to emperorCatholic missionaries welcomed at court of AkbarTolerated SikhismA new faith arose by combing elements of Islam, HinduismEgalitarian faith whose members were soldiers, merchants

CULTURALPATRONAGESponsored arts and public worksGolden Age of Islamic art, architectureMosques, palaces, schools, hospitals, caravanseraisMiniature painting flourished in Iran, MughalsIstanbulOttoman capital, a bustling city of a million peopleTopkapi palace housed government, sultan's residenceSuleymaniye blended Islamic, Byzantine architectureIsfahanSafavid capitalThe "queen of Persian cities“The central mosque is a wonder of architectureFatehpur Sikri, Mughal capital, created by AkbarCombined Islamic style with Indian elementsSite abandoned because of bad water supplyTaj Mahal, exquisite example of Mughal architecture

DETERIORATIONDynastic declineCaused by negligent rulers, factionsConstant competition between factions within governmentFormer elite military units often became threatsGovernment corruptionBribery became way of doing businessMany officials pocketed taxes, overtaxed, etc.Harem politicsRulers raised in harems let sex carry them awayRulers took to drinking, partying too muchRulers’ mothers, wives jockeyed for position, sonsTensions increasedReligious conservatives abandoned toleranceOttoman conservativesResisted innovations like the telescope, printing pressResisted western military innovations, industrializationDiscouraged merchants, commercialismSafavid EmpireShiite leaders urged shahs to persecute Sunnis, SufisNon-Muslims lost many protectionsMughal IndiaAurangzeb's policies provoked deep animosity of HindusRise of SikhsRise of Christians with coming of Europeans

REASONS FOR DECLINEEconomy and Military ExpansionThe Conquerors 1/5Each conquest provided booty to state to help developmentEnd of territorial expansion meant no bootyDifficult to support armies and bureaucratsSeries of long and costly wars with no financial supportEconomy Stagnated by eighteenth centuryOfficials resorted to raising taxes to deal with financial problemsOfficial, unofficial corruption lost millions in revenue to stateFailure to develop trade and industryCommerce had always been in hands of Jews, ArmeniansLost initiative to European merchantsMilitary declineImported European weapons but never made their ownArsenals outdated; tactics outdated; systems outdatedOttoman EmpireEven purchased military vessels from abroadEuropeans developed extremely modern militaries1689: Austrians raise 2nd siege of Vienna, liberate HungaryIndiaRise of Marhattas, Rajputs in IndiaMughals refused to build a navy, let Europeans rule seasLed to loss of Mughal provincesLocal princes, rulers assumed control, defied MughalsRise of Banditry, PiracyIn countryside, many poor peasants took to banditryOn seas, many ports and merchants too to piracyTrade disrupted, made Europeans mad who often retaliated