CHEMISTRY - Archive
CHEMISTRYHIGHER SECONDARY - SECOND YEARVOLUME - IUntouchability is a sinUntouchability is a crimeUntouchability is inhumanTAMILNADUTEXTBOOK CORPORATIONCollege Road, Chennai - 600 006
Government of TamilnaduFirst Edition - 2005Second Edition - 2006Revised Edition - 2007CHAIRPERSON & AUTHORDr. V.BALASUBRAMANIANProfessor of Chemistry (Retd.)Presidency College, (Autonomous), Chennai - 600 005.REVIEWERSDr. M.KRISHNAMURTHIProfessor of ChemistryPresidency College (Autonomous) Chennai - 600 005.Dr. J.SANTHANALAKSHMIProfessor of Physical ChemistryUniversity of MadrasChennai - 600 025.Dr. CHARLES CHRISTOPHER KANAGAMProfessor of ChemistryPresidency College (Autonomous)Chennai - 600 005.Dr. R. ELANGOVANJoint Director, Sarva Shiksha AbhiyanCollege Road, Chennai - 600 006.Dr. M.KANDASWAMYProfessor and HeadDepartment of Inorganic ChemistryUniversity of MadrasChennai - 600 025.AUTHORSMr. S.MUTHUKUMARAN,Lecturer in ChemistryAcademy of Maritime Education & Training,BITS (Ranchi) Ext. Centre,Kanathur-603 112.Mr. V.JAISANKAR,Lecturer in ChemistryL.N.Government Arts College,Ponneri - 601 204.Mrs. S.MERLIN STEPHEN,P.G.Teacher in ChemistryCSI Bain Mat. Hr. Sec. SchoolKilpauk, Chennai - 600 010.Price : Rs.Mrs. N.KALAVATHY,P.G. Teacher in Chemistry,J.G.G. Higher Secondary SchoolVirugambakkam, Chennai - 600 092.Mrs. R.C.SARASWATHY,P.G. Teacher in Chemistry,Govt. Girls Higher Secondary SchoolAshok Nagar, Chennai - 600 083.Dr. V. NARAYANAN,Lecturer in Inorganic ChemistryUniversity of Madras, Chennai - 600 025.Dr. K. SATHYANARAYANAN,P.G. Teacher in Chemistry,Stanes Anglo Indian Hr. Sec. School,Coimbatore - 18.This book has been prepared by the Directorate of School Educationon behalf of the Government of Tamilnadu.This book has been printed on 60 G.S.M paperPrinted by Offset at :(ii)
PREFACEChemistry, a branch of science concerned with the properties, structuresand composition of substances and their reactions with one another. InorganicChemistry studies the preparation, properties and reactions of all chemicalelements and their compounds, except those of carbon. Organic Chemistry studiesthe reactions of carbon compounds, which are 100 times more numerous thannonorganic ones. It also studies an immense variety of molecules, including thoseof industrial compounds such as plastics, rubber, dyes, drugs and solvents. PhysicalChemistry deals with the Physical properties of substances, such as their boilingand melting points.The present book is included for the students of higher secondary secondyear. For convenience sake this text book of chemistry is published in two volumes.This text book is written after following the revised syllabus, keeping in view theexpectations of the National Council of Educational Research & Training(NCERT). This book will provide an “inverted pyramid” model to gain knowledgein all branches of chemistry. The topics such as Atomic Structure - II, PeriodicClassification - II, Solid State - II, Thermodynamics - II, Chemical equilibrium II, Chemical Kinetics - II, Electrochemistry - I and II are designed in such a waythat students should have a continuous access to these topics. Hence, theknowledge gained in higher secondary first year will help the students to have acontinuous access to these topics. The knowledge gained in 1 will help thestudents to achieve excellence in the path of quest for chemical knowledge. Manyproblems are introduced in inorganic, physical and organic chemistry to enhancethe quantitative aptitude of students. The quantitative aptitude will enable thestudents to understand the concepts well.The importance of chemistry is well known. A knowledge of chemistrywill help anybody to understand biology, natural processes, geochemical concepts,pharmaceutical and biochemical concepts. Hence this text book will enhance theimage of the students in such a way that they can face any competitive examinationin future. The problems in all branches of chemistry and many more mechanismsof organic chemical reactions will help the students to understand the chemicalprinciples.(iii)
Much informations about nobel laureates are given. These informationsis not part of the syllabus. However, such information will help the students toknow a lot about the scientists.The questions that are given at the end of every chapter can be takenonly as model questions. A lot of self evaluation questions, like, choose the bestanswer, one or two sentence answer type and short answer types questions aregiven in all chapters. While preparing the examination, students should not restrictthemselves, only to the questions and problems given in the self evaluation. Theymust be prepared to answer the questions and problems from the entire text.Learning objectives may create an awareness to understand each chapter.Sufficient reference books are suggested so as to enable the students toacquire more informations about the concept of chemistry.Dr. V. BALASUBRAMANIANChairpersonSyllabus Revision Committee (Chemistry)& Higher Secondary Second Year ChemistryText Book Writing Committee(iv)
Syllabus : Higher Secondary - Second Year Chemistry Volume - IINORGANIC CHEMISTRYUnit 1 - Atomic Structure -IIDual properties of electrons - de-Broglie relation - Heisenberg’suncertainty principle - Wave nature of an electron - Schrodinger wave equation(only equation, no derivation) - Eigen values and Eigen function- significanceonly - molecular orbital method. Application to Homo diatomic and Heterodiatomic molecules - Metallic Bond - Hybridization of atomic orbitals Hybridizationinvolving s, p and d Orbitals - Types of forces between molecules.Unit 2 - Periodic classification-IIReview of periodic properties - Calculation of atomic radii - Calculationof ionic radii - Method of determination of Ionisation potential - Factors affectingionisation potential - Method to determine the electron affinity - Factors affectingEA - Various scales on electro negativity values.Unit 3 - p - Block Elements - IIGroup -13 General trends - Potash alum- Preparation, Properties anduses - Group 14 General trends - Silicates - Types and structure - Silicones Structure and uses - Extraction of lead - Group - 15. General trends - Phosphorous- Allotropes and extraction - Compounds of phosphorous - Group - 16. Generaltrends - H2SO 4 - Manufacture and properties. - Group - 17 Generalcharacteristics. Physical and Chemical properties - Isolation of fluorine and itsproperties - Interhalogen compounds Group-18 Inert gases - Isolation, propertiesand uses.Unit 4 d - BLOCK ELEMENTSGeneral characteristics of d-block elements - First transition series Occurrence and principles of extraction - chromium, copper and zinc - Alloys Second transition series - Occurrence and principles of extraction of silver Third transition series - Compounds - K2Cr2O7, CuSO45H2O, AgNO3, Hg2Cl2,ZnCO3, Purple of cassius.Unit 5 - f-block elementsGeneral characteristics of f - block elements and extraction - Comparisonof Lanthanides and Actinides - Uses of lanthanides and actinides.(v)
Unit 6 - Coordination Compounds and Bio-coordination CompoundsAn introduction - Terminology in coordination chemistry - IUPACnomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds - Isomerism incoordination compounds - Structural isomerism - Geometrical isomerism in4 - coordinate, 6 – coordinate complexes - Theories on coordination compounds- Werner’s theory (brief) - Valence Bond theory - Crystal field theory - Uses ofcoordination compounds - Biocoordination compounds. Haemoglobin andchlorophyll.Unit 7 - Nuclear chemistryNuclear energy nuclear fission and fusion - Radio carbon dating - Nuclearreaction in sun - Uses of radioactive isotopes.PHYSICAL CHEMISTRYUnit 8 - Solid state IITypes of packing in crystals - X-Ray crystal structure - Types of ioniccrystals - Imperfections in solids - Properties of crystalline solids - Amorphoussolid.Unit 9 - Thermodynamics - IIReview of I law - Need for the II law of thermodynamics - Spontaneousand non spontaneous processes - Entropy - Gibb’s free energy - Free energychange and chemical equilibrium - Third law of thermodynamics.Unit 10 - Chemical equilibrium IIApplications of law of mass action - Le Chatlier’s principle.Unit 11 - Chemical Kinetics -IIFirst order reaction and pseudo first order reaction - Experimentaldetermination of first order reaction - method of determining order of reaction temperature dependence of rate constant - Simple and complex reactions.Unit 12 – Surface ChemistryAdsorption - Catalysis - Theory of catalysis - Colloids - Preparation ofcolloids - Properties of colloids - Emulsions.(vi)
Unit 13 – Electrochemistry – IConductors, insulators and semi conductors - Theory of electricalconductance - Theory of strong electrolytes - Faraday’s laws of electrolysis Specific resistance, specific conductance, equivalent and molar conductance Variation of conductance with dilution - Kohlraush’s law - Ionic product of water,pH and pOH - Buffer solutions - Use of pH values.Unit 14 – Electrochemistry - IICells - Electrodes and electrode potentials - Construction of cell andEMF - Corrosion and its preventions - commercial production of chemicals Fuel cells.Unit 15 – Isomerism in Organic ChemistryGeometrical isomerism - Conformations of cyclic compounds - Opticalisomerism - Optical activity - Chirality - Compounds containing chiral centres D-L and R-S notation - Isomerism in benzene.Unit 16 – Hydroxy DerivativesNomenclature of alcohols - Classification of alcohols - General methodsof preparation of primary alcohols - Properties Methods of distinction betweenthree classes of alcohols 1 , 2 and 3 ) - Methods of preparation of dihydricalcohols. (glycol) - Properties - Uses - Methods of preparation of trihydricalcohols - Properties - Uses - Aromatic alcohols - Methods of preparation ofbenzyl alcohol - Properties - Uses - Phenols - Manufacture of phenols - Properties- Chemical properties - Uses of Phenols.Unit 17 - EthersEthers - General methods of preparation of aliphatic ethers - Properties- Uses - Aromatic ethers - Preparation of anisole - Reactions of anisole - Uses.Unit – 18 Carbonyl CompoundsNomenclature of carbonyl compounds - Comparison of aldehydes andketones - General methods of preparation of aldehydes - Properties - UsesAromatic aldehydes - Preparation of benzaldehyde - Properties - Uses - Ketones- general methods of preparation of aliphatic ketones (acetone) - Properties Uses - Aromatic ketones - preparation of acetophenone- Properties - Uses preparation of benzophenone - Properties.(vii)
Unit 19 – Carboxylic AcidsNomenclature - Preparation of aliphatic monocarboxyli c acids – formicacid - Properties - Uses - Tests for carboxylic acid - Monohydroxy monocarboxylic acids - Lactic acid – Sources - Synthesis of lactic acid - Aliphaticdicarboxylic acids - preparation of dicarboxylic acids – oxalic and succinic acids- Properties - Strengths of carboxylic acids - Aromatic acids - Preparation ofbenzoic acid - Properties - Uses - Preparation of salicylic acid - Properties Uses - Derivatives of carboxylic acids - Preparation of acid chloride – acetylchloride (CH3COCl) - Preparation - Properties - Uses - Preparation of acetamide- Properties - Preparation of acetic anhydride - Properties - Preparation of estersmethyl acetate - Properties.Unit - 20 Organic Nitrogen CompoundsAliphatic nitro compounds - Preparation of aliphatic nitroalkanes Properties - Uses - Aromatic nitro compounds - Preparation - Properties Uses - Distinction between aliphatic and aromatic nitro compounds - Amines Aliphatic amines - General methods of preparation - Properties - Distinctionbetween 1 , 2 , and 3 amines - Aromatic amines - Synthesis of benzylamine Properties - Aniline–preparation - Properties - Uses - Distinction betweenaliphatic and aromatic amines - Aliphatic nitriles - Preparation - properties Uses - Diazonium salts - Preparation of benzene diazoniumchloride - Properties.Unit 21 - BiomoleculesCarbohydrates - structural elucidation - Disaccharides andpolysaccharides - Proteins - Amino acids - structure of proteins - Nucleic acids- Lipids.Unit 22 - Chemistry in ActionMedicinal chemistry - Drug abuse - Dyes – classification and uses Cosmetics – creams, perfumes, talcum powder and deodorants - chemicals infood - Preservatives artificial sweetening agents, antioxidants and edible colours- Insect repellant – pheromones and sex attractants - Rocket fuels - Types ofpolymers, preparation and uses.(viii)
CHEMISTRY PRACTICALS FOR STD XIII.Detection of Nitrogen, Halogen and Sulphur in organic compounds.II.Detection of Functional groups present in organic compounds.a) Saturation and Unsaturationb) Aromatic and aliphaticc) Aldehydes, carboxylic acids, diamides, phenolic groups-(Natureof any one functional group is identified)III.Qualitative analysisDetermination of two cations and two anions in a given mixture.Cations: Pb , Cu , Al3 , Fe3 , Zn2 , Mn2 , Ca , Ba2 , Mg2 , NH4 Anions: Borate, Sulphide, Sulphate, Carbonate, Nitrate, Chloride,Bromide.(Insoluble and interfering ions are to be excluded. Also, two cations ofthe same group and anions of the following)Combinations such as (Cl- Br-) and (CO32- C2O42-) Should beavoided.IV.Volumetric analysisa) Permanganometry1. Titration of Oxalic acid Vs KMnO42. Titration of ferrous ammonium sulphate against KMnO4 solution.b) Dichrometry1. Standardization of K2Cr2O7 solution.2. Any one estimation using K2Cr2O7 as one of the oxidant.Report should contain two acid radicals and two basic radicals, withoutmentioning the name of the salt.Confirmatory tests should be exhibited.(ix)
CONTENTSUNIT NO.PAGE NO.Inorganic Chemistry1Atomic Structure - II12Periodic Classification - II383p - Block Elements594d - Block Elements995f - Block Elements1336Coordination Compounds andBio-Coordination Compounds142Nuclear Chemistry1677Physical Chemistry8Solid State - II1889Thermodynamics - II20510Chemical Equilibrium - II224(x)
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INORGANIC CHEMISTRYIn 1869, Russian Chemist Dmitry Mendeleyev develops theperiodic table of the element. As Newlands did before him in 1863,Mendeleyev classifies the elements, according to their atomic weightsand notices that they exhibit recurring patterns or periods of properties.(xii)
1. ATOMIC STRUCTURE - IILearning Objectives( To study the dual property of electron and understand theproperty through experiments.( To derive the de-broglie relation and learn its significance.( To learn Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.( To study Molecular Orbital Theory and its application toHomodiatomic and Heterodiatomic molecules.( To understand the concept of Hybridisation and Hybridisation ofs, p and d orbitals.1
CHRONOLOGY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE1.Dalton(1808): Discovery of atom2.Julius Plucker (1859): First discoverer of cathode rays3.Goldstein(1886): Discovered anode rays and proton4.Sir.J.J.Thomson(1897): Discovered electron and determinedcharge/mass(e/m) ratio for electron5.Rutherford(1891): Discovered nucleus and proposedatomic model6.MaxPlanck(1901): Proposed quantum theory of radiation7.RobertMillikan(1909): Determined charge of an electron8.H.G.J.Mosely(1913): Discovered atomic number9.Niels Bohr(1913): Proposed a new model of atom10. Clark Maxwell(1921): Electromagnetic wave theory11. de-Broglie(1923): Established wave nature of particles12. Pauli(1927): Discovery of neutrino13. Werner Heisenberg(1927) : Uncertainty Principle14. James Chadwick(1932): Discovery of neutron15. Anderson(1932): Discovery of positron16. Fermi(1934): Discovered antineutrino17. Hideki Yukawa(1935): Discovered mesons18. Segre(1955): Discovered antiproton19. Cork and Association(1956) : Discovered antineutron2
Progress of Atomic ModelsØIn 1803, John Dalton, proposed his atomic theory. He suggested that atomswere indivisible solid spheres.ØJ.J.Thomson proposed that an atom was a solid sphere of positively chargedmaterial and negatively charged particles, electrons were embedded in itlike the seeds in a guava fruit. But later this concept was proved wrong.ØRutherford suggested the planetary model, but this model was rejected.ØIn 1913, Neils Bohr proposed that electrons revolve around the nucleus ina definite orbit with a particular energy. Based on the facts obtained fromspectra of hydrogen atom, he introduced the concept of energy levels ofatom.ØIn 1916 Sommerfeld modified Bohr’s model by introducing elliptical orbitsfor electron path. He defined sub energy levels for every major energy levelpredicted by Bohr.ØThe concept of Quantum numbers was introduced to distinguish the orbitalon the basis of their size, shape and orientation in space by using principal,azimuthal, magnetic and spin quantum numbers.ØFrom the study of quantum numbers, various rules are put forward forfilling of electrons in various orbitals by followingØ*Aufbau principle*Pauli exclusion principle and*Hunds rule of maximum multiplicity.In 1921 Burry and Bohr gave a scheme for the arrangement of electrons inan atom. Further the nature of electron (s) is studied.3
1.1 DUAL PROPERTY OF AN ELECTRONIn case of light, some phenomena like interference, diffraction etc., can beexplained if light is supposed to have wave character. However certain otherphenomena such as black body radiation and photo electric effect can be explainedonly if it is believed to be a stream of photons i.e., has particle character. Thuslight is said to have a dual character. Such studies on light were made by Einsteinin 1905.Louis de Broglie, a French Physicist, in 1924, advanced the idea that likephotons, all material particles such as electron, proton, atom, molecule, a pieceof chalk, a piece of stone or iron ball possessed both wave character as well asparticle character. The wave associated with a particle is called a matter wave.1.1.1Difference between a particle and a waveThe concept of a particle and a wave can be understood by the differentpoints of distinction between them.PARTICLEWAVE1. A particle occupies a well-defined 1. a wave is spread out in space e.g. on throwingposition in space i.e a particle isa stone in a pond of water, the waves startlocalized in space e.g. a grain ofmoving out in the form of concentric circles.sand, a cricket ball etc.Similarly, the sound of the speaker reacheseverybody in the audience. Thus a wave isdelocalized in space.2. When a particular space is occupied 2. Two or more waves can coexist in the sameby one particle, the same spaceregion of space and hence interfere.cannot
Dr. V.BALASUBRAMANIAN Professor of Chemistry (Retd.) Presidency College, (Autonomous), Chennai - 600 005. Dr. M.KRISHNAMURTHI Professor of Chemistry Presidency College (Autonomous) Chennai - 600 005. Price : Rs. This book has been prepared by the Directorate of S
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Chemistry is the science that describes matter, its properties, the changes it undergoes, and the energy changes that accompany those processes. Inorganic chemistry Organic chemistry Physical chemistry Biochemistry Applied Chemistry: Analytical chemistry, Pharmaceutical Chemistry, . Istv an Szalai (E otv os University) Lecture 1 6 / 45
Chemistry of Cycloalkanes 13. Chemistry of Alkyl halides 14. Alcohols 15. Chemistry of Ethers and Epoxides 16. Chemistry of Benzene and Aromaticity 17. Chemistry of Aryl Halides 18. Aromatic Sulphonic Acids 19. Chemistry of Aldehydes and Ketones 20. Carboxylic Acids 21. Chemistry of Carboxylic Acid Derivativ
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