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.p-6-Computation is such an obvious application that it tends to beoverlooked by the planner of a computer-based instructional system.Notable experiinents are being conducted in the Massachusetts public98schools, the University of California at Santa Barbara,10Development Corporation.and SystemInteractive use of computers has potential for problem solving inall areas, including the arts and humanities.Computers are being usedincreasingly by artists and scholars in connection with musical compositions,I believecreative writing, experimental films and architectural designs.outside scienceit is especially important that students from these areasand engineering be given access to computing capability through welldesigned study carrels and readily comprehended programming languages.Computer aids for instructional management.Public schools probablyto a few "managers"will be able to provide interactive computer assistanceindividual student. Knowledgeof instruction sooner than they can to eachinstructional materials andgained through semi-automated handling ofimplementation of otherperformance records will contribute to effectiveinteractive uses of computers by students directly. The Oakleaf school11began with much teacher-student contact and a large clericalprojectof InformationFeurzeig, Wallace, "New Instructional Potentialsin Electronics, Vol. HFE8,Technology," IEEE Transactions on Human FactorsJune, 1967, pp. 84-88.On-Line Computing,Fried, B. E., "Solving Mathematical Problems,"1967, pp. 131-176.Walter J. Karplus (Editor). New York: McGraw-Hill,910 Rosenbaum, J., Samuel L. Feingold, Charles H. Frye and F. D. Bennik,Statistical Inference,"Final Report," Computer-Based Instruction inCorporation, Santa Monica, California, October, 1967.System Development11 Lindvall, C. M. and John O. Bolvin, "Programed Instruction in theSixty-sixth Yearbook of theSchools: Individually Prescribed Instruction,"II: Programed Instruction.NationaZ Society for the Study of Education, FartEducation, 1967, pp. 217-254.The National Society for the Study of

1.0-7-staff.Gradually the clerical burden is being replaced by computerprograms, and the routine contact with students will be taken aver bystudent interaction with computer programs.A symposium on Classroom Information Management Systems was held atthe 1968 Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association.Details of current proiects can be obtained from those who made presentations:Harry Silberman and Beverly Kooi of System Development Corporation, SantaMonica, California; James Becker of Research for Better Schools Corporation,Philadelphia; and John Flanagan of AIR in Palo Alto, California.Computer-based tools for the author and researcher.Convenientlanguages are needed for specifying interactive instruction in ways whichcan be processed by computer programs.A working group established byEducom (Interuniversity Communications Council, see Section VII) isassembling a set of documents which are intended to describe variousprogramming languages and to recommend additional requirements which arenot presently met.Some of the systems described in a preliminary reportprovide capability for interactive composition and revision of materials;the author can change his text, diagrams or learning strategy by typinginstructions on a keyboard or by moving a pointer about on a televisionscreen to indicate new arrangements of text or diagrams.Suitable computerprograms can also assist with the preparation of a first draft of ateaching sequence.A first approximation of a computer-based learning exercise might bederived from a specially-written text, a set of test papers which havebeen graded, or a description of objectives for student performance at theend of the exercise.A few projects have demonstrated that computerprograms can generate additional materials as needed for each individualstudent. That is, an additional teaching example or test situation can beassembled from elements and rules provided in advance by the author todescribe the subject matter.Finally, computer programs should help withdata analysis and decisions in research and modification of instructionalpackages.

IV.VARIETY OF LESSONS, SYSTEMS AND LANGUAGESMaterials are being written in almost all subject areas and for manyage levels.Abstracts of computer programs for instruction are collectedby Entelek Incorporated (see Section VII below).The appropriatenessand effectiveness of computer assistance in each field depends oncharacteristics of each instructional obicccive.Subject experts willdetermine where and how the computer if3 used, but the evaluation should bebased on records of student performance.Presumably computers will provide some advantage through increasedlearning and perhaps reduced cost.computers which include:I have suggested criteria for using1) processing and evaluation of responses typedor spoken by the student, 2) complex sequencing or selection rules, orself-modifying strategies of instruction, and 3) generation or assemblyof new material.There are also some obvious limitations:it isdifficult for a computer to process and evaluate the content of essays,complex physical constructions and facial expressions.12Lack of organizationof a subject may make computer presentation difficult where liveindividual instruction can be reasonably successful.A number of different kinds of computer systems are being used bycurrent research and development projects.Some small computers have beenprogrammed for use by one student at a time for self-testing, computation,simulation, and even desigr, of gamesvocal skills practice.1413for another student to play, or forSomewhat larger systems, similarly dedicated to12The reader may want to check some interesting work on evaluationof mechanics and style reported by Ellis Page, "Grading Essays byComputer: Progress Report" in Invitational Conference on Testing Problems,October 1966, Princeton: Educational Testing Service, 1967, pp. 87-100.13Starkweather, John A., "COMPUTEST: A Computer Language for IndividualTesting, Instruction, and Intervie;ying," Psychological Reports, Vol. 17,1965, p. 237.14Lane, Harlan L., "Conditioning Accurate Prosody," AudiovisualInstruction, Vol. 11, October 1966, pp. 621-23.

simultaneous use by 4 to 32a single purpose, have been programmed forstudents; these can be characterized as multiple-user teaching machines.Technomics and(Information can be obtained from IBM, RCA, Philco-Ford,proposed whichperhaps other manufacturers.) Larger systems have beenthe same or similarwould handle up to 200 students simultaneously usingdevelopment projects have usedteaching programs. Other research andgeneral-purpose conversational systems, imbedding the conversationalavailable to users.instructional applications among other applicationscomputer for tutorial,In the latter instance the student may use the sameExamples of usesself-testing, simulation, gaming, and problem solving.in other than computerof campus time-sharing systems for instructiondescribing theirscience are common now, although technical reportsapplications are not usually published.be away from a sequenceThe current trend in computer use appears tothe author's program.delivered by the computer under strict control offuture systems will make theIt appears more likely that managers ofstudents through organizedprimary sources of knowledge more available toStudents will be given the necessaryfiles of information and procedures.computation and composition;learning tools for information management,by practice in informationlearning exercises will be characterizedstudents will take more control overacquisition and decision making, andtheir learning , Lvironments.students and instructional objectivesI still believe that for certainauthor-controlled tutorial presentationsthe effectiveness of computerizedpresentation of similarwill be sufficiently greater than non-computerFor example: childrenmaterials to justify the greater cost per unit.discriminations and attention span needed formay lack the verbal ski!ls,computer; other students (bothindependent study without the aid of thewritten and spoken language maygrade school and college level) studyingself-testing.benefit from computer assistance for diagnosticused for research andExpensive on-line systems will continue to beenvironment. From trainingmaterials development, often In the natural

-10-business offices, anddevices located in public school classrooms,and communicationsengineering shops or laboratories, a central computerinstructionsystem can instruct, record data, and test hypotheses regardingperiods of time. I believeand learning with great detail and over longwith real situations willthat this capability to mix experimental controlsituations and actualhelp bridge the gap between contrived laboratoryapplication of learning principles in the classroom.exercises willThe cost in preparation and use of computer-based15and not readily distributed over large numbers ofcontinue to be highnetworks will stimulatestudents. However, I anticipate that communicationworking cooperatively onand technically assist groups of subject expertscomputer-based manrials for similar courses taught at differentcooperative basisIt is likely that materials developed on ainstitutions.different institutions thanwill be more relevant and applicable to manyGuidelines formaterials developed through independent ventures.exercises are now beingorganization and documentation of computer-basedeasier and more effective at newwritten which will make revision and useComputer aids for searching and editing local copy could helplocations.for better use by hisa second user to explore and modify the materialsstudents.Computer-based networks will distribute interactive informationinstitutions and community educationprocessing services which individual16 Ultimately, the resources ofaffordseparately.programs could notenrich and individualize theentire regions will be made available tolocation.program of each student, no matter what his geographical15Kopstein, Felix F., and Robert J. Seidel. "Computer AdministeredInstruction: Economics,"Instruction versus Traditionally Administered2, Summer, 1968, pp. 147-78.Audio-Visual Communication Review, Vol. 16, No.EDUNET: Report ofBrown, G. W., S. G. Miller, and T. A. Keenan.Conducted by the Interuniversitythe Summer Study on Information NetworksWiley & Sons, Inc. (1967).Communications Council (EDUCOM). New York: John16

V.LITERATURE SURVEYS AND REVIEWSThere are many ways to organize information about computer-basedinstruction systems:student levels, subject areas, learning strategies,hardware systems, programming languages, computer functions and userrepresented in thepurposes. Nearly all of these arrangements arefollowing sample of surveys and reviews arranged alphabetically by author.An Article by Bushnell in Audiovisual Communications Review, 1963,various uses of computers in education, although thegilies an overview ofdescription of operating systems is no longer current.A bibliography and KWIK index was published by Engel in January ofDahlgreen,1967 and revised in August (Programming Systems Branch, USNWL,It overlaps the Entelek bibliography, but does include someVa.22448).annotations in its published version.The Entelek abstract card file (seebut theSection VII) is more extensive and includes longer annotations,participationreport abstracts are available only by annual subscription orin the exchange.Gentile circulated a review in 1966 which appeared in the AudiovisualproceededCommunications Review, Spring, 1967. After a brief history heand strategy, authorto discuss the semantic problem of programmed contentproblem forlanguage convenience, system capability and the effectivenessinstructional materials.A chapter by Hansen in the Review of Educational Research, December,well as1966, describes psychological experimentation and simulation asdifferent applications of computer-assisted instruction.It gives particularattention to research studies (which have been few).literature in 1966 andHickey and Newton published a survey of theEntelek indexing and abstractingagain in 1967, drawn from the files of theis rather comprehensiveservice (see Section VII). The January 1967 versionresearch reports and documentation ofand gives appropriate attention toThe only serious errorsinstructional materials which have been prepared.

-12-are in classification of systems and languages. A 1968 edition isexpected to be available in July.A book by Uttal (Real-Time Computers: Technique and Applications inthe Psychological Sciences, Harper and Row, 1967) includes a chaptertitled: "Computer Teaching Machines."In his discussion of psychologicalfoundations and of types of computer teaching machines, Uttal emphasizesthe unique contributions automated information processing systems canmake through technology for generation of the steps in a sequence ofinstruction.In a review circulated in 1966 and published in The Computer inAmerican Eaucation (John Wiley, 1967) I described computer contributionsto communication.One section lists information arranged by project orcomputer system, and may be useful when planning visits or phone calls toobtain detailed information about system design, research, applications,,and instructional materials under development.In a chapter in the Review of Eatcational Research, December, 1967,I covered modes of computer assistance for the student, strategies forcomputer-based learning situations, computer aids for instructionalmanagement, computer-based tools for the author and researcher, computeraided design of learning situations, and trends and projected needs.VI.SINGLE MEETINGS, CONFERENCES AND SYMPOSIA (1965-1968, U.S.A.)The following materials, organized chronologically by date ofoccurrence, may provide further references for the reader by providingpublications and proceedings which were an outcome of the meetings held,and also assist the reader by suggesting where to look for materialsresulting from meetings or conferences to be held in the next year or so.A conference was sponsored by AEDS and Stanford University on usesof computers in American education in October of 1965. Sections of twoof the presentations appeared in the Saturday Review of Literature, 1966,

-13and the conference report was published by John Wiley, June 1967 (TheComputer in American Education, edited by Don D. Bushnell and Dwight W.Allen).A conference on the Computer in American Universities was held atthe University of California at Irvine, California,in November of 1965.The contributed papers were published in August 1967 with an editedtranscript of discussion (Computers and Education, edited by Ralph Gerard,McGraw-Hill).The Commission on College Physics also sponsored a conference inNovember at Irvine.The report of that working session, The Computer inPhysics Instruction, is available from the commission at the Universityof Maryland.It is of somewhat lesser scope than the other Irvineconference, but it includes more detail and a number of examples of interestto non-physicists as well as physicists.In March171966 the ONRA revision is under consideration.CAI interest group met in Cambridge at BoltBeranek and Newman and at Harvard University Computation Center.Participants discussed CAI languages for both students and authors.Asummary was distributed by Entelek and appeared in Automated EducationLetter.In July of 1966, Educom established an informal working group inthe area of author languages.During July, 1966, Educom assembled a number of experts andrepresentatives of member institutions to discuss and plan a network forcommunication among colleges and universitie3 in North America.The reportof that conference detailed designs and projections of need and probableuses for network services.The report was published in JulyReport of the Summer Study on Information Networks.James G. Miller and Thomas A. Keenan.171967 (Edunet:George W. Brown,John Wiley).The Office of Naval Research (ONR) has supported many of theinnovative projects in this area, and through Entelek has encouragedmeetings to exchange information.

-14-In August of 1966 and 1967, educational technology and specialequipment were described and demonstrated at a conference of the AmericanManagement Association (135 W. 50th, New York, N. Y. 10020). The programsdescribe topics and participants; no summary of the sessions is available.The 1968 session was scheduled for August 13-15.The ONR CAI interest group met at System Development Corporation,Santa Monica, California, in September, 1966.On the first.day, variousSDC programs exploring computer aids in educational systems were described.On the second day, participants discussed issues related to successfulimplementation of CAI.A summary of these sessions is also availablefrom Entelek; sections of the summary appearedinAutomated EducationLetter, January and February, 1967.The ONR CAI interest group met at Penn State University in April 1967.using an IBM 1410Research and development activity in technical educationand experimental Coursewriter was described. A summary was distributedby Entelek.The Education Policy Project at George Washington University conductedduring July of 1967. Thea "traveling seminar" for the Office of Educationbackground papers, briefing sessions and conclusions of the seminar70's.participants are presented in the final report titled Education in theCopies are available through ERIC.The meetings of Project ARISTOTLE (Annual Review and InformationEducation), inSymposium on the technology of Training, Learning andin education underDecember of 1967, included a session on use of computersCopiesTask Group #5 on New Developments in Computers and Communications.Security Industrialof the proceedings are available from the.National20005.Washington, D. C.Association, Suite 800, 1030 15th St., N. W.,The UniversityAn ONR interest group on simulation in instruction met atto projectsof Texas in Austin, January 1968. Special attention was givenfor testing and training atof the CAI lab at Texas, and the simulations

-15-the manned space flight center in Houston.Notes have been distributedby Entelek, and a longer report is in preparation by C. Victor Bunderson,Director of the CAI Lab at Texas.An ONR interest group on CAI in medical education met in Cambridgein February 1968

DOCUMENT RESUME ED 025 155 EM 006 902 By- Zinn, Karl L. A Basic Reference Shelf on Interactive Use of Computers for Instruction. A Series One Paper from Eric at Stanford Stanford Univ., Calif. ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Media and Technology. Spons Agency- Office of Education(DHEW). W