Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook For Consumers, Clean Cities, Energy .

Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for ConsumersPHEV System DesignsThere are two categories of PHEV systems, whichdiffer in how they combine power from the electricmotor and the engine. Parallel PHEVs connect the engine and the electric motor to the wheels via mechanical coupling.Both the electric motor and the engine can drivethe wheels directly. Series PHEVs use only the electric motor to drivethe wheels. The ICE is used to generate electricity for the motor. The Chevy Volt uses a slightlymodified version of this design: The electric motordrives the wheels almost all of the time, but thevehicle can switch to work like a parallel PHEV athighway speeds when the battery is depleted.PHEV takes less time to reach a full charge because ofits smaller battery pack.PHEV fuel consumption depends on the distancedriven between battery charges. If the vehicle is drivenless than its all-electric range and plugged in to charge,it is possible to use only electric power. If the vehicle’sbattery is depleted and not recharged, fuel economyon gasoline will be about the same as for a similarlysized HEV.5Factors That Affect All-Electric RangeAs with conventional vehicles, the efficiency and driving range of electric drive vehicles varies substantiallybased on driving conditions and driving habits. Rangemay also be reduced by:· Extreme outside temperatures requiring more energyto be used to heat or cool the occupants.· Using other electrical equipment such as seat heaters.· Extremely cold batteries, which have greater resistance and diminished capacity.High driving speeds reduce range because more energyis required to overcome the increased air resistance.Aggressive driving—rapid acceleration and deceleration—reduces range compared with smooth acceleration and deceleration. In addition, hauling heavy loadsand driving uphill reduces range. PHEVs are affectedsimilarly by these factors, with the added characteristicthat the ICE kicks in when driving demands exceed thecapacity of the all-electric propulsion system.PEV manufacturers are improving the technology tocompensate for some of these issues. For instance,several models are now available with battery heatersor other technology to heat the battery and improveefficiency in cold climates. FuelEconomy.gov’s Tipsfor Hybrids, Plug-In Hybrids, and Electric Vehicles( fueleconomy.gov/feg/evtips.shtml) provides informationand resources for maximizing fuel economy and range.Plug-In Electric Vehicle BenefitsWhat can PEVs do for you? They can save you money,while helping to keep your community, country, andworld clean and secure.High Fuel Economy, Low Fuel Coston how they’re driven, today’s EVs (or PHEVs in electricmode) can exceed 100 mpge. However fuel economyis stated, you can compare information and get a feelfor the significant cost and emissions savings of thesetechnologies.PEVs can reduce your fuel costs dramatically. Becausethey rely in whole or part on electric power, their fueleconomy is measured differently than that of conventional vehicles. You might see it stated as miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent (mpge). Or it may be brokendown by kilowatt-hours (kWh) per mile or per 100 milesfor EVs and the electric mode of PHEVs, and miles pergallon (mpg) for the ICE mode of PHEVs. DependingHigh efficiency translates to low fuel cost. In electricmode, charging most PEVs costs only 3 to 6 cents permile. In contrast, fueling a gasoline car that has a fueleconomy of 30 mpg costs about 11 cents per mile. Ifyou drive 15,000 miles per year, you could save 750to 1,200 in annual fuel costs by driving in all-electricmode instead of driving a conventional gasoline car.1 Ifyour utility offers lower electric rates for PEV owners or1 Fuel cost savings depend on electricity and gasoline prices, as well as vehicle types and driving patterns. This example compares a gasoline carwith a fuel economy of 30 mpg (combined city and highway) assuming a gasoline cost of 3.36/gallon (based on U.S. national average in 2014)versus PEVs operated in electric mode at 3 to 6 cents per mile (which assumes an electricity cost of 12 cents/kWh).

Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Consumers6Comparing Fuel CostsOn a national average, it costs less than half asmuch to travel a given distance using electricity compared to gasoline or diesel. But that costcan vary widely depending on where you are inthe United States, because gasoline, diesel, andelectricity prices vary by region. In addition, it’s noteasy to equate the energy in a kilowatt of electricity to that in a gallon of gasoline.The U.S. Department of Energy has simplified thiscomparison for consumers with eGallon (energy.gov/maps/egallon). In addition to accurately comparingthe cost of electricity to that of gasoline in dollarsper gallon, the tool allows you to select a particularstate to see that comparison on a local level.for electricity during off-peak times, you may be able toreduce your electricity costs even further. For information on PEV charging rates available from utilities, referto the AFDC’s Federal and State Incentives and Lawsdatabase (afdc.energy.gov/laws). To calculate the overallcost of ownership, visit the AFDC’s Vehicle Cost Calculator (afdc.energy.gov/calc).Fueling Location DiversityWe’re used to driving to a gas station to fuel our cars,but PEVs open up other options. Most conveniently,your home can become a personal electric chargingstation, capable of recharging a PEV every night (seethe Charging Your PEV section). In addition, a growingnetwork of public PEV charging stations enables youto top off your PEV’s batteries in a few hours while youwork or shop. Many workplaces have started installingcharging equipment as an employee benefit. The U.S.Department of Energy’s Workplace Charging enge) is designed toencourage employers to consider installing workplacecharging for their employees. The Challenge aims toachieve a tenfold increase in the number of U.S. employers offering workplace charging within five years.The old “gas station” concept also will remain anoption—with an electric twist. Public fast-chargingstations are becoming more widely available, which canboost a properly equipped PEV’s battery in less than 30minutes. Of course, if your vehicle is a PHEV, you canfuel with gasoline (or possibly other fuels in the future)when necessary at any gas station.2In all-electric mode, PEVs produce no tailpipe emissions.PEV lifecycle emissions are minimized when their sourceof electricity comes from nonpolluting resources like windand sunlight. Photo by Mike Linenberger, NREL/PIX 15141Low EmissionsPEVs can help keep your town and your world clean.There are two general categories of vehicle emissions:direct and life cycle. Direct emissions are emittedthrough the tailpipe, through evaporation from the fuelsystem, and during the fueling process. Direct emissions include smog-forming pollutants, such as nitrogenoxides, other pollutants harmful to human health, andgreenhouse gases (GHGs), primarily carbon dioxide.When driven in all-electric mode, PEVs produce zerodirect emissions—a great pollution reduction benefit forurban areas. PHEVs do produce evaporative emissionsand, when running on gasoline, tailpipe emissions.However, because their gasoline or diesel operation ismore efficient than comparable conventional vehicles,they yield direct emissions benefits even when relyingon gasoline.Life cycle emissions include all emissions related to fueland vehicle production, processing, distribution, use,and recycling/disposal. For example, for a conventionalgasoline vehicle, emissions are produced at each stage:extracting petroleum from the ground, refining it togasoline, distributing the fuel to stations, and burningit in vehicles. Similarly, emissions are produced whenextracting raw materials for the production of vehicles;manufacturing, distributing, maintaining, and operat2 In the future, PHEVs may be capable of fueling with alternative fuels,such as E85 (a fuel composed of approximately 85% ethanol and 15%gasoline), compressed natural gas, or hydrogen.

Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Consumers7Buying the Right PEVAs with any vehicle purchase, you should assess yourdriving requirements and price range, then compareyour requirements with the avail able PEVs.Driving RequirementsMany of your PEV driving requirements are similar towhat they would be for any vehicle. Do you want twoseats or four? A sedan or a hatchback? A commuter caror a long-distance cruiser? But PEVs raise other questions as well. Most importantly, do you want an EV,which typically drives about 100 miles on electricity, ora PHEV, which may have a shorter all-electric range butcan use gasoline for extended driving? Compare the fueleconomy and range of PEVs and conventional vehiclesusing FuelEconomy.gov ( fueleconomy.gov).Today’s EVs can typically travel about 100 miles on a fullcharge, sufficient for most commutes and other householdtrips. Photo from Margaret Smith, DOE/PIX 19545ing the vehicles; and retiring them. Like direct emissions, life cycle emissions include a variety of harmfulpollutants and GHGs. All vehicles produce substantiallife cycle emissions, and calculating them is complex.However, PEVs typically have a life cycle emissionsadvantage because most categories of emissions arelower for electricity generation than for conventionalvehicles running on gasoline or diesel. If PEVs useelectricity generated by nonpolluting renewable sources,life cycle emissions are minimized. To calculate the lifecycle GHG emissions of PEVs, as compared to conventional vehicles, based on the electricity generation mixin your area, visit the AFDC’s Emissions from Hybridand Plug-In Electric Vehicles webpage (afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric emissions.php).Energy SecurityPEVs can help make the United States more energy independent. Today, our cars—and the highly mobile way oflife they support—depend almost entirely on petroleum.However, U.S. petroleum production hasn’t kept pacewith demand, so we import more than 40% of our petroleum, and the transportation sector accounts for morethan 70% of our petroleum consumption. Our relianceon petroleum makes us vulnerable to price spikes andsupply disruptions. PEVs help reduce this threat becausealmost all U.S. electricity is produced from domesticcoal, nuclear, natural gas, and renewable sources.AvailabilityPEVs are widely available today, and the number ofavailable models continues to grow. For informationon currently available PEVs, see the AFDC LightDuty Vehicle Search (afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/search/light). There are PEVs available to meet the needs ofa wide range of consumers, from luxury vehicles tosmall compact vehicles. To find currently available andnew and upcoming PEVs, visit FuelEconomy.gov. It isimportant to note that when new PEV models are firstreleased, they may only be available in certain marketsor at particular dealerships. However, availability typically increases over time. Models that have been on themarket for some time can often be found everywhere inthe country.Prices and IncentivesPurchase prices for today’s PEVs can be considerablyhigher than for similar conventional vehicles, thoughthe prices for PEVs are coming down quickly as theExample PEV Prices, 2015*Chevy Volt (PHEV) 34,170Toyota Prius Plug-In (PHEV) 29,990Ford Focus Electric (EV) 29,170Nissan Leaf (EV) 29,010* Manufacturer’s suggested retail price taken from manufacturerwebsite, before incentives.

Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Consumers8technology improves. For information on currentprices, see the AFDC’s Vehicle Cost Calculator (afdc.energy.gov/calc). While the up-front cost may be high,drivers are typically able to reduce the overall cost ofowning a PEV through lower operating costs (see thePEV Benefits section), as well as incentives.The federal Internal Revenue Service (IRS) Qualified Plug-In Electric Drive Motor Vehicle Tax Creditis available for PEV purchases until 200,000 qualified PEVs have been sold in the United States by eachmanufacturer, at which point the credit begins to phaseout for that manufacturer. The tax credit is for 2,500to 7,500 per new PEV purchased for use predominatelyin the United States, with the specific credit amountdetermined by the IRS based on the size of the vehicleand the capacity of its battery.PEVs must meet the same safety standards that apply toconventional vehicles. Because these vehicles are muchquieter than conventional vehicles, drivers should exercisecaution in areas with pedestrian traffic. Photo from GeorgeBeard, Portland State University/PIX 19557Depending on where you live, you may also be eligiblefor PEV incentives from your state, city, or utility.Monetary and non-monetary incentives may includeadditional tax credits, vehicle or infrastructure rebatesor vouchers, electricity rate discounts, vehicle registration fee reductions, loans, and high-occupancy vehiclelane exemptions. To find relevant incentives, searchthe AFDC’s Federal and State Incentives and Lawsdatabase (afdc.energy.gov/laws). For informationspecific to where you live, contact your local CleanCities coalition (afdc.energy.gov/cleancities/coalitions/coalition locations.php) or State Energy Office (naseo.org/members-states).Driving andMaintaining Your VehiclePEVs are as easy to drive and maintain as conventionalvehicles, but some special considerations apply.Vehicle MaintenanceBecause PHEVs have gasoline engines, maintenancerequirements for this system are similar to those in conventional vehicles. However, the PEV electrical system(battery, motor, and associated electronics) likely willrequire minimal scheduled maintenance. Because ofregenerative braking, brake systems on PEVs typicallylast longer than on conventional vehicles. In general,EVs require less maintenance than conventional vehiclesbecause there are usually fewer fluids (like oil and transmission fluid) to change and far fewer moving parts.Battery LifeLike the engines in conventional vehicles, the advancedbatteries in PEVs are designed for extended life, but willwear out eventually. Currently, most manufacturers areoffering 8-year/100,000-mile warranties for their batteries. Nissan has additional battery capacity loss coveragefor 5 years or 60,000 miles. Manufacturers have alsoextended their coverage in states that have adopted theCalifornia emissions warranty coverage periods, whichrequire at least 10-year coverage for batteries on partialZEVs. Check with your dealer for specific informationabout battery life and warranties. Although manufacturers do not publish pricing for replacement batteries, ifthe batteries need to be replaced outside the warranty,it will likely be a significant expense. Battery pricesare expected to decline as the benefits of technologicalimprovements and economies of scale are realized.SafetyPEVs must undergo the same rigorous safety testingand meet the same safety standards required for conventional vehicles sold in the United States. In addition,a PEV-specific standard sets requirements for limitingchemical spillage, securing batteries during a crash, andisolating the chassis from the high-voltage system toprevent electric shock. PEV manufacturers design theirvehicles with safety features that deactivate the highvoltage electric system in the event of an accident. Inaddition, EVs tend to have a lower center of gravity thanconventional vehicles, making them less likely to rollover while often improving ride quality.

Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for ConsumersOne safety concern specific to PEVs is their silent operation: pedestrians may be less likely to hear a PEV thana conventional vehicle. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) is studying waysto address this issue, such as requiring PEVs to emitaudible sounds at low speeds. For more information,see NHSTA’s rulemaking (nhtsa.gov/SampleSounds).This option is already available on many PEVs, including the Chevrolet Volt and Nissan Leaf. In any case,you should use extra caution when driving your PEV inpedestrian areas.Charging Your VehicleCharging your PEV requires plugging in to electricvehicle supply equipment (EVSE). EVs must be chargedregularly, and charging PHEVs regularly minimizes theamount of gasoline they consume. Whether publiclyavailable or installed in your home, there are various types of charging infrastructure. One importantvariation is how quickly they can charge a vehicle. Thissection describes the EVSE options so you can choosewhat’s best for you.Utility 240-V ACControl y9Types of Charging EquipmentEVSE is the equipment used to deliver electrical energyfrom an electricity source (such as the electricity running to your home’s outlets) to a PEV. EVSE commu nicates with the PEV to ensure that it supplies anappropriate and safe flow of electricity.EVSE for PEVs is classified into several categories bythe maximum amount of power provided to the battery.Two types—Level 1 and Level 2—provide alternatingcurrent (AC) electricity to the vehicle, with the vehicle’sonboard equipment converting AC to the direct current(DC) needed to charge the batteries. The other type—DC fast charging—provides DC electricity directly tothe vehicle. Charging times range from less than 30minutes to 20 hours or more based on the type of EVSE,as well as the type of battery, how depleted it is, and itsenergy capacity.EVs typically have more battery capacity than PHEVs,so charging a fully depleted EV takes longer than charging a fully depleted PHEV.Level 1Level 1 EVSE provides charging through a 120 volt (V)AC plug and requires a dedicated branch circuit perthe National Electrical Code (NEC). Most, if not all,PEVs will come with a portable Level 1 EVSE cordset, which does not require installation of additionalcharging equipment. Typically, on one end of the cordis a standard, three-prong household plug (NEMA 5-15connector). On the other end is a standard SAE J1772connector (see Connectors and Plugs section below),which plugs into the vehicle.Level 1 works well for charging at home, work, or whenonly a 120 V outlet available. Based on the battery typeand vehicle, Level 1 charging adds about 2 to 5 miles ofrange to a vehicle per hour of charging time.Level 2Level 2 EVSE offers charging through a 240 V (typicalin residential applications) or 208 V (typical in commer cial applications) AC plug. This requires installingcharging equipment and a dedicated electrical circuitof 20 to 100 amperes (amps) (Figure 1).Figure 1. Level 2 Charging Diagram. Source: eTec (2010), ElectricVehicle Charging Infrastructure Deployment Guidelines for theOregon I-5 Metro Areas of Portland, Salem, Corvallis and Eugene. EVProject publication, www.theevproject.com/documents.php.Illustration by Dean Armstrong, NRELMost houses have 240 V service for appliances suchas clothes dryers and electric ranges. Because Level 2EVSE can easily charge a typical EV battery overnight,this will be a common installation for single-family

10Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Consumershouses. Workplace charging typically uses Level 2equipment as well. Level 2 and Level 1 equipment usethe same type of connector on the vehicle. Based on thebattery type, charger configuration, and circuit capacity, Level 2 charging adds about 10 to 20 miles of rangeto a PEV per hour of charging time.DC Fast ChargingDC fast-charging EVSE (480 V AC input to the EVSE)enables rapid charging at sites such as heavy trafficcorridors and public fueling stations. A DC fast chargercan add about 60 to 80 miles of range to a PEV in 20minutes or less. This type of charging uses a separatetype of plug than the J1772 Level 1 and Level 2 EVSE.Wireless ChargingWireless or “inductive” charging EVSE uses an electromag netic field to transfer electricity to a PEV without acord. This method was used for EVs in the 1990s and isbecom ing available again with newer EVs as an aftermarket add-on. SAE

Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Consumers 3 Plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs), like the Nissan Leaf, Tesla Model S, Chevy Volt, and Toyota Plug-in Prius, are everywhere these days. Perhaps you're considering buying one, but wonder how they measure up to con-ventional vehicles. This handbook is designed to answer